Week 1 – Lecture 1-1 – General Systems Theory
General systems theory was originally proposed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1928. It is a general science of ‘wholeness’ and is a way of looking at things.
Since Descartes, the “scientific method” had progressed under two related assumptions. A system could be broken down into its individual components so that each component could be analyzed as an independent entity, and the components could be added in a linear fashion to describe the totality of the system. Von Bertalanffy proposed that both assumptions were wrong. On the contrary, a system is characterized by the interactions of its components and the nonlinearity of those interactions. In 1951, von Bertalanffy extended systems theory to include biological systems.
The approach of systems thinking is fundamentally different from that of traditional forms of analysis. Instead of focusing on the individual pieces of what is being studied, systems thinking focuses on the feedback relationships between the thing being studied and the other parts of the system. Therefore, instead of isolating smaller and smaller parts of a system, systems thinking involves a broader view, looking at larger and larger numbers of interactions.
Organizational development makes extensive use of general systems theory. Originally, organizational theory stressed the technical requirements of the work activities going on in the organizations. In the 1970’s, the rise of systems theory forced scientists to view organizations as open systems that interacted with their environment. There is now a consensus on the importance of the environment and its potential impact on a system.
Conventional physics deals only with closed systems, i.e. systems which are considered to be isolated from their environment.
There are two types of systems in organizations: closed systems and open systems. An open system interacts with its environment through giving and receiving information. Closed systems are closed off from the outside environment, and all interaction and knowledge are transmitted within the closed system only. Closed systems can hamper growth since the flow of information stays within the system and has no chance to interact with or build on knowledge from the outer environment. Every living organism is essentially an open system. The basic characteristics of an open system are the dynamic interaction of its components. All organizations are by definition, open systems.
Systems thinking encompasses a large body of methods, tools, and principles, all oriented to looking at the interrelatedness of forces and seeing them as part of a common process.
Information and Feedback
Another development which is closely connected with system theory is that of the modern theory of communication.
The general notion of communication theory is that of information. In many cases, the flow of information corresponds to a flow of energy, e.g. if light waves emitted by some objects reach the eye or a photoelectric cell, elicit some reaction of the organism or some machinery, and thus convey information.
There is, however, another way to measure information, namely, in terms of decisions. A second central concept of the theory of communication and control is that of feedback.
Feedback arrangements are widely used in modern technology for the stabilization of a certain action, as in thermostats or in radio receivers; or for the direction of actions towards a goal where the aberration from that goal is fed back, as information, till the goal or target is reached.
We can all probably think of examples when we needed feedback on something and it was never forthcoming, which resulted in frustration and possibly created distrust.
The importance of feedback cannot be overstated, whether it has to do with one’s personal performance, peer review, and quality insurance, improving a process, enhancing patient treatment or meeting regulatory requirements etc.
For our purposes, we will use the definition of a system, proposed by Russell Ackoff.
A system is a perceived whole whose elements “hang together” because they continually affect each other over time and operate toward a common purpose. The word descends from the Greek verb sunistanai, which originally meant, “to cause to stand together.” As this origin suggests, the structure of a system includes the quality of perception with which you, the observer, cause it to stand together.
Examples of systems include biological organisms (including human bodies), the atmosphere, diseases, ecological niches, factories, chemical reactions, political entities, communities, industries, families, teams-and all organizations. You and your work are probably elements of dozens of different systems.
Consider for a moment the human body. It is a system of systems. The body itself represents a system that interacts with its environment on a continuous basis. Within the system called the body, there are the following subsystems:
-Cardiovascular system
-Respiratory system
-Skeletal system
-Immune/Lymphatic system
-Urinary system
-Nervous system
-Endocrine system
-Reproductive system (male or female)
-Digestive system
-Integumentary system
Now think what happens when there is a breakdown in feedback among any of these systems, and think too, what effect a given environment, physical or psychological, can have on the body or any of its systems.
Hard and Soft Systems and Hard and Soft Skills
Healthcare organizations are some of the most complex, open system, organizations on the planet. Within a healthcare organization, you will find a myriad of systems. Some are classified as Hard Systems and some are Soft Systems.
Healthcare workforce issues and what the attributes are that you should be looking for in employees can be looked at from a hard and soft system perspective. Placing people in jobs that match their knowledge, skills, and abilities helps ensure that employees are satisfied and will work for you over the years.
Hard and Soft Systems have different attributes and require different skills and abilities to be successful in them. This is where Hard and Soft Skills come into play.
We will look Hard and Soft Systems and Hard and Soft Skills, and see what the correlation is between them. And whether or not we inadvertently place square pegs in round holes.
Hard and Soft Systems
| Hard System |
Soft System |
| Hard systems approach (system analysis, structured methods, systems engineering, (operations research) assume: |
Soft systems approach (soft systems methodology) assume: |
| 1.Objective reality of systems in the world |
1.Stakeholders interpret problems differently (no objective reality) |
| 2.Well-defined problem to be solved |
2. Organizational problems are messy or poorly defined |
| 3.Technical factors foremost |
3.Human factors foremost |
| 4. Scientific approach to problem-solving |
4.Creative, intuitive approach to problem-solving |
| 5.An ideal solution |
5.Outcomes are learning, better understanding, rather than a solution |
| Hard Skills |
Soft Skills |
| Hard skills are skills where the rules stay the same regardless of which company, circumstance or people you work with. Hard skills can be learned in school. Left brain dominance. Examples of hard skills, but not limited to, are: |
Soft skills are skills where the rules change depending on the company culture and people you work with. Most soft skills are not well taught in school and have to be learned on the job and by trial and error. Right brain dominance. Examples of soft skills, but not limited to, are: |
| Programming |
Communication |
| Math |
Teamwork |
| Physics |
Presentation |
| Accounting |
Leadership |
| Finance |
Coaching |
| Biology |
Self-awareness |
| Chemistry |
Resilience |
| Using software |
Self-confidence |
| Knowledge of regulations |
Persistence and perseverance |
| Creating a newsletter |
Management |
We all need a combination of hard and soft skills; however, one or the other may be more important depending on the job we have. A programmer that works in a hard system probably needs more hard skills, to be successful. On the other hand, a human resource specialist that works in a soft system probably needs more soft skills.
The most important aspect of this is to make certain that people are matched to the job.
(Thought question, “How many hard and soft systems can you identify within a healthcare organization? What impact do you think it would have if a person who thrives on the application of hard skills, were placed in a job that required little if any hard skills, but did require a lot of soft skills?)
Input-Output and Process Flow
Given that healthcare organizations are fundamentally open systems, and open systems interact with their environment through giving and receiving information, we derive results through inputs and outputs. In between the inputs and outputs will be process flow and feedback mechanisms.
The following diagram shows a basic input and output structure. As you look at the diagram, think about the types of inputs, process flow, and outputs that you see in a healthcare setting. Also, think about feedback loops and at what points in the process, you feel that feedback would be useful to help achieve success and customer satisfaction.
The input-output analysis diagram template on the following pages gives you a more robust way to evaluate a process flow. There are other models for diagraming process flow; the important thing is to capture all of the inputs, process handoffs, and outputs. Most t if not all healthcare organizations still have traditional mailroom functions and the complete process flow diagram shows what the mailroom inputs-process-outputs look like.
Sources:
The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook, Strategies and Tools for Building A Learning Organization
Tech Mind for the Masses! Hard and Soft Systems Methodologies: The Differences
Examples of Closed Systems in Organizations, Crystal Vogt, Demand Media
Hard versus Soft Systems Methodology, David Cairns, CSC9T4
Hard Skills VS. Soft Skills-Difference and Importance, Lei Han