Disorders Worksheet Discussion Paper

Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Guy R. Lefrançois University of Alberta

Guy R. Lefrançois Psychology: The Human Puzzle

Associate Vice President, Editor in Chief: Erik Evans

Sponsoring Editor: Steven Wainwright

Development Editor: Dan Moneypenny

Assistant Editor: Nick Devine

Editorial Assistant: Rebecca Paynter

Media Editor: Kim Purcell

Printing Services: Bordeaux

Composition/Illustration: Lachina Publishing Services

Illustration: Maury Aaseng

Cover Image: Dana Sigall/Index Stock Imagery/Photolibrary

ISBN-10: 1-9359662-4-3

ISBN-13: 978-1-9359662-4-1

Copyright © 2011 Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

All rights reserved.

GRANT OF PERMISSION TO PRINT: Bridgepoint Education Inc., the copyright owner of this material, hereby grants the holder of this publication the right to print these materials for personal use. The holder of this material may print the materials herein for personal use only. Any print, reprint, reproduction, or distribution of these materials for commercial use without the express written consent of the copyright owner constitutes a violation of the U.S. Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810, as amended.

To Elizabeth, Liam, Zachary, Nathan, and Michael, who are still finding new pieces of the puzzle for me.

Brief Contents

Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Chapter 2: The Brain and Consciousness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Chapter 4: Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

Chapter 5: Memory and Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

Chapter 6: Motivation and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169

Chapter 7: Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207

Chapter 8: Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

Chapter 9: Psychological Disorders and Therapies . . . . . . .279

Chapter 10: Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373

Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409

Contents

About the Author xix Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxiii

chapter 1 The Science of Psychology 1

1.1 What Is Psychology? 3 What Psychologists Do 3

Clinical Psychologists 4 Counseling Psychologists 4 Industrial/Organizational Psychologists 4 School Psychologists 4 Educational Psychologists 5 Developmental Psychologists 5 Experimental Psychologists 5 Other Divisions 5

1.2 The Beginnings of Psychology 6 Recent Origins of Psychology 7

Structuralism 8 Functionalism 8 Behaviorism 8 Psychodynamic Theory 9 Cognitivism 9 Humanism 9 Other Orientations 10

1.3 Principles of Science 10 The Scientific Method 11

CONTENTS

1.4 Sources of Psychological Information 12 Descriptive Research 12

Naturalistic and Nonnaturalistic Observation 12 Case Studies 13 Surveys 14 Correlational Research 15

Experiments 17 Experimental and Control Groups 17

Ex Post Facto Studies 19 1.5 Cautions in Interpreting Psychological Research 20

Experimenter Bias 20 Subject Bias 22 Sampling Bias 22 Other Problems of Psychological Research 24

Research Ethics 24 Avoiding the Pitfalls 25

1.6 Philosophical Issues and Psychological Controversy 25

1.7 Psychology’s Relevance 26

1.8 This Book 27

Main Points 28 Study Terms 29

chapter 2 The Brain and Consciousness 31

2.1 Evolution 33 Early Homo Sapiens 33

Brains, Language, and Thinking 35 Evolution and the Nervous System 36

2.2 The Neuron 38 Neural Transmission 39

Dopamine 41 Norepinephrine 41 Acetylcholine 42 Serotonin 42

2.3 Organization of the Nervous System 42 The Endocrine System 44

2.4 The Brain 44 Studying Brain Functions 44

Brain Ablations 45 Brain Stimulation 45 Brain Imaging 46

CONTENTS

Structures of the Brain 46 Hindbrain 48 The Midbrain 49 The Forebrain 49 The Hemispheres 50

2.5 Biology and Behavior 51 Consciousness 53

2.6 Sleep 54 Circadian Rhythms 54 Stages of Sleep 54 Why We Sleep 56 Dreams 58

Why We Dream 58 2.7 Hypnosis 59

Some Facts 60 Is Hypnosis a Different State of Consciousness? 60 Applications of Hypnosis 61

2.8 Drugs and Consciousness 61

Main Points 62 Study Terms 63

chapter 3 Sensation and Perception 65

3.1 Sensation and Perception 67 Functions of the Senses 67

3.2 Vision 69 Structure of the Eye 69 Eye and Brain 71 Light Waves and Vision 72

Wavelength 73 Amplitude 74 Complexity and Color Purity 74

Color Vision 74 Trichromatic Theory: Young-Helmholtz 75 Opponent Process Theory: Hering 76

Vision in Low Light 76 Characteristics of Visual Perception 78

The Visual Constancies 78 Perception of Depth and Distance 81 Perception of Movement 84

Illusions 84

CONTENTS

3.3 Attention and Perception 86

3.4 Hearing 88 Three Functions of the Auditory System 88 Perception of Sound Waves 89

Pitch 89 Loudness 90 Timbre 91

The Auditory Apparatus 92 How the Ear Works 93

3.5 The Body Senses 94 The Vestibular Sense 94 The Skin Senses 94 The Kinesthetic Senses 96

3.6 The Chemical Senses 96 Olfaction 96

The Olfactory Organ 97 Taste 99

3.7 Adding Pieces of the Puzzle 99

Main Points 100 Study Terms 101

chapter 4 Learning 103

4.1 What Is Learning? 105 Approaches to Learning 105

4.2 Behavioristic Approaches 107 Classical Conditioning 107

Pavlov’s Experiments 107 Acquisition 109 Generalization and Discrimination 111 Extinction and Recovery 111 Contiguity 112 Blocking 112 Consequences 114

Operant Conditioning 114 The Skinner Box 114 The Basic Operant Conditioning Model 115 Shaping 116

Schedules of Reinforcement 117 Effects of Different Schedules 117 Types of Reinforcement 119

CONTENTS

Punishment 121 The Ethics of Punishment 121 Operant Conditioning and Human Behavior 122

4.3 A Transition to Cognitivism 123 Problems for Traditional Behaviorism 123 Insight 124

4.4 Cognitive Approaches 126 The Main Beliefs of Cognitive Psychology 127

Learning Involves Mental Representation 127 Learners Are Not Identical 127 New Learning Builds on Previous Learning 127

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory 127 Models 128 Reciprocal Determinism 128 Effects of Imitation 130 Humans as Agents of Their Own Behaviors 130

4.5 Practical Applications of Learning Principles 131 Applications of Behaviorism 131 Applications of Cognitivism 132

Main Points 133 Study Terms 133

chapter 5 Memory and Intelligence 135

5.1 What Is Memory? 137 The Filing-Cabinet Analogy 138

5.2 Stages of Memory 138 Sensory Memory 139 Short-Term Memory 140

Studying Short-Term Memory 140 Characteristics of Short-Term Recall 140 What Happens in Short-Term Memory: Baddeley’s Model 141

Long-Term Memory 142 Long-Term Memory Is Relatively Stable 143 Long-Term Memory Is Constructive 144 Understanding and Emotion Influence Memory 144 Rehearsal and Intention Influence Long-Term Memory 145 Two Kinds of Long-Term Memory: Explicit and Implicit 145 Two Kinds of Explicit Memory: Semantic and Autobiographical 146

Physiology of Memory 147 Neuroscience 148

Processes in Long-Term Memory 149