Applying Learning Theory to Life

5

Individualized Knowledge Construction

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

· Explain the fundamental ideologies of constructivism.

· Describe social constructivism and this perspective’s views of learning.

· Compare and contrast situated cognition and the foundational ideas of cognitivism.

· Explain the premise and variables associated with sociocultural theory.

· Discuss how problem-based learning supports constructivist-based learning theories.

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Introduction

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Introduction

Have you ever:

· considered how your culture, social, and physical interactions affect how and what you assign meaning to?

· learned a skill or professional role under the guidance of a more experienced peer?

· desired to learn in a more self-directed, meaningful way?

The material in this chapter will address an area of learning theory that consists of constructivist-based principles, which we can use to help understand the significance of these types of questions. Foundationally, constructivism is a theory that supports the view that humans learn by connecting new information to their existing knowledge and that the knowledge is individualized, personalized, and reflective of one’s own perception of the information learned. For example, as you learn more about the field of psychology, the knowledge that you gain will be built (constructed) upon your previous understanding. Your understanding, in essence, is shaped by your initial perceptions about psychology, which may differ from another person’s perception of psychology. Thus, someone who considers how a concept could be applied only in psychological counseling may have more difficulty understanding how the same concept applies in other areas, such as organizational or educational psychology. Additional theories have been developed based on the foundations of constructivism. Social constructivism, situated cognition, and sociocultural theory (SCT) are some of the other theories based on constructivism, and they will be considered in this chapter. Applying Learning Theory to Life

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An aspect of constructivist thought is the idea of learning that builds upon previous understanding and knowledge.

Constructivist-based theories suggest that one’s environment plays a role in meaningful learning, as do socially oriented cognitive theories (discussed in Chapter 4). Constructivist theories, however, also suggest that learners are not just passive receivers of information but are active participants in their knowledge development, and this idea is a key component of the theories that support the perspective of individualized knowledge construction. Applying Learning Theory to Life

As mentioned in earlier chapters, theoretical propositions are not always accepted by all learning theorists. Constructivism, and the theories based on its foundations, is no exception. The notion that a learner’s knowledge is personalized is controversial because the assumptions of constructivism are difficult to prove or disprove (Phillips, 2000); it is considered by some as a subjective notion. Specifically, logical positivism, which is based on a perspective that argues that problems should be answered only through empirical research, suggests that constructivism, whether as a theory or a pedagogical strategy, is ideological—that it lacks solid findings obtained through controlled observation or experimentation (Gross & Levitt, 1994; Matthews, 1992). Researchers aligned with other theoretical frameworks (e.g., behaviorism or cognitivism) also have suggested that the notion of individualized knowledge construction through discovery learning (drawing from one’s personal experiences to discover information) is a reflection of the values within education that were popular in the mid-20th century, such as child-centered instruction (Zhenlin, 2009), rather than a viable learning theory.

Additionally, cognitive theory suggests that the instructor or counselor is the crucial part of successful knowledge acquisition, and that discovery learning (a foundational proponent of constructivism) would be far too unstructured for effective knowledge development (Bulgren, Deshler, & Schumaker, 1997; Rosenshine, 1997). Yet, research has suggested that these arguments regarding the role of the instructor and discovery are not entirely accurate ones because constructivist ideas have proven to be effective in applied settings, such as the classroom (Brooks & Brooks, 1999) and in instructional design. Thus, you should continue to use critical thinking while evaluating the information included in this chapter and come to your own conclusions about the perspectives of constructivist-based theories.

The concepts and perspectives presented in this chapter align with the view that individuals are active participants in the process of learning—that knowledge, and thus reality, is unique and personalized to each individual. The readings and areas of theory have been chosen to help support your understanding of the different frameworks that can be applied to discussions about knowledge construction:

· Sections 5.1 and 5.2 will help you establish an understanding of the core elements of constructivism and social constructivism and how the concepts associated with these perspectives support the belief that learners are participants in the knowledge acquisition process.

· Section 5.3 presents a cognitivist view that acknowledges the situational effects on learning, which is supported by constructivism’s ideology.

· Section 5.4 addresses sociocultural theory, which focuses on language development as a key component of learning, suggesting that the interactions we experience can affect this process.

· Section 5.5 considers problem-based learning (PBL), a type of learning activity endorsed by constructivists, and the application example further supports how constructivist ideologies look in action.

The prominent differences in the theoretical models presented in these readings will be the associative and specific nature of how, and to what extent, social, cultural, and physical variables influence the learning process.

As you evaluate the different theoretical frameworks, consider the findings that are presented, whether details might be missing, and if the findings support the argument that successful knowledge acquisition is more than the strict adherence to laws that often guide research. Ask yourself questions as you read, such as the following:

· Is learning merely based upon the memory acquisition of the learner?

· Can successful learning take place through attention and schema development alone?

· Do we learn better when we actively do something than when we just read or listen?

· Do constructivist-based theories reflect effective knowledge acquisition propositions?

These are just some of the many questions that should be considered when evaluating the suggestions presented based on constructivist principles and theories.

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5.1 Constructivism

It is important to understand that constructivist-based theories do not disprove cognitive or behaviorist theories. Instead, previous theories are used in conjunction with the foundation that learners should be the center of the process, organizing their own knowledge, based on their own reality. Constructivism is viewed both as a theory and as a teaching strategy. Both of these views can be construed as truths because the theory supports how we create knowledge and the aligned teaching strategies promote this endeavor and are hence applicable and vital to learning settings (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). Mascolo and Fischer (1995) have further suggested that “constructivism is the philosophical and scientific position that knowledge arises through a process of active construction” (p. 49), which is promoted by constructivist educational leaders.

The excerpts in this section are from Applefield, Huber, and Moallem (2000). The authors discuss three types of constructivism and consider how learners construct knowledge. They also summarize some of the constructivist-based theories that will be elaborated upon in later sections of the chapter. As you read, note that these authors emphasize constructivism in the context of classroom interactions; however, such strategies are also relevant in a multitude of other learning contexts. The constructivist framework offers trainers, educators, counselors, and other mentors practical strategies for encouraging effective learning.

Excerpts from “Constructivism in Theory and Practice: Toward a Better Understanding”

By J. M. Applefield, R. Huber, and M. Moallem

Three Types of Constructivism

[. . .] Within constructivism there are different notions of the nature of knowledge and the knowledge construction process. Moshman (1982) has identified three types of constructivism: exogenous constructivism, endogenous constructivism, and dialectical constructivism. Applying Learning Theory to Life

In exogenous constructivism or radical constructivism there is an external reality that is reconstructed as knowledge is formed. Thus one’s mental structures develop to reflect the organization of the world. The information processing conceptualizations of cognitive psychology emphasize the representation view of constructivism, calling attention to how we construct and elaborate schemata and networks of information based on the external realities of the environments we experience.

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When a teacher allows students to discuss, argue, and understand a topic, it is an example of dialectical or social constructivism. The students are interacting with each other, learning different points of view, and finding meaning in a particular topic.

Endogenous constructivism or cognitive constructivism (Cobb, 1994; Moshman, 1982) focuses on internal, individual constructions of knowledge. This perspective, which is derived from Piagetian theory (Piaget, 1970, 1977), emphasizes individual knowledge construction stimulated by internal cognitive conflict as learners strive to resolve mental disequilibrium (see Chapter 4). Essentially, children as well as older learners must negotiate the meaning of experiences and phenomena that are discrepant from their existing schema. Students may be said to author their own knowledge, advancing their cognitive structures by revising and creating new understandings out of existing ones. This is accomplished through individual or socially mediated discovery-oriented learning activities (such as the use of graphic organizers, labs, or group work).

Dialectical constructivism or social constructivism (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Rogoff, 1990) views the origin of knowledge construction as being the social intersection of people, interactions that involve sharing, comparing, and debating among learners and mentors. Through a highly interactive process, the social milieu of learning is accorded center stage and learners both refine their own meanings and help others find meaning. In this way knowledge is mutually built. This view is a direct reflection of Vygotsky’s (1978b) sociocultural theory (SCT) (discussed further in section 5.4), which accentuates the supportive guidance of mentors as they enable the apprentice learner to achieve successively more complex skill, understanding, and ultimately independent competence. Applying Learning Theory to Life

The fundamental nature of social constructivism is collaborative social interaction in contrast to individual investigation of cognitive constructivism. Through the cognitive give and take of social interactions, one constructs personal knowledge. In addition, the context in which learning occurs is inseparable from emergent thought. This latter view, known as contextualism in psychology, becomes a central tenet of constructivism when expressed as situated cognition, which is discussed in section 5.3. Social constructivism captures the most general present perspective on constructivism with its emphasis on the importance of social exchanges for cognitive growth and the impact of culture and historical context on learning. [. . .]

6

Person-Centered Approaches to Learning

 

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

· Explain the roots of humanism and its current iteration.

· Describe humanism’s views about personal development.

· Summarize the principles of Waldorf education and Steiner pedagogy.

· Define experiential learning and explain how it is evaluated.

· Describe the different elements of the transformative learning processes.

· Compare and contrast extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

· Apply self-determination theory (SDT) to learning.

· Apply Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to learning psychology.

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Introduction

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Introduction

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Humanists focus on the whole person and what he or she is experiencing or feeling when considering how humans learn.

Have you ever:

· decided not to take on a new project because someone told you that you could not accomplish such a task?

· felt unsatisfied with a task because you knew you were performing it to please others instead of yourself?

· felt that you are not the person you want to be?

· been frustrated because a degree program emphasized book- rather than experience-based learning?

· wondered about the meaning of life and your personal connection to it?

Theorists interested in person-centered psychology (also known as humanism) might ponder these types of questions. This chapter focuses on humanistic ideologies that have shaped numerous domains in psychology, including learning. Humanism is far more philosophical than previous theories, so it will be important to think critically about the pros and cons of this approach.

This chapter will introduce you to frameworks that suggest that holistic personal development fortifies learning when applied to oneself or in a learning atmosphere designed to teach specific content (such as organizational training). Section 6.1 will consider the foundations of humanism from a historical perspective. The other sections will then explain how the approach can be applied within learning contexts (section 6.2), learning models (section 6.3), and motivation learning theories (section 6.4). Although each framework is unique, the crucial similarity is the emphasis on self-discovery and the search for self-actualization in learning.

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6.1 Humanism

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6.1 Humanism

As you learned in section i.5, humanism in the context of learning is an ideology that promotes the importance of the needs and motivations of the whole person, thus increasing an individual’s learning through the development of multiple areas. However, humanistic ideas did not just appear in the context of learning, nor are they solely based in educational values. (Remember the discussion about situated cognition and the different associations with the word humanism in section 5.3?) Humanism has a rich history, and its application to effective learning is relevant when considering the variety of factors associated with how individuals learn (Boutcher, 2006; Collini, 2008; Goulding, 2006; Guarino, 2008; Hankins, 2005). Applying Learning Theory to Life

There are many definitions of humanism, but in learning, humanism is derived from the word humanitas. During the Renaissance in Europe (the early 14th through 17th centuries), humanitas was an area of educational studies that focused on classical literature. Those who studied this area were literature scholars whose focus included grammar, poetry, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy. Today, these fields are known as the humanities. The goal in these fields is to develop the whole person using philosophical means, through the discovery of self and the meaning of life. The humanities sought to inspire one to develop a higher level of existence, or self-actualization.

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) is considered the revitalizer of humanism because of his person-centered therapy approach (Rogers, 1953). Historically, his theory of the self (Pescitelli, 1996; Rogers, 1980) has been associated more with the psychology of personalities (Dagmar, 1996; Ryckman, 1993), but it is also applicable to learning psychology because the theory addresses psychological components that can affect learning effectiveness and accuracy. His person-centered approach was based primarily on how a person perceives oneself. The “self,” in this case, is a central construct of his theory, suggesting that a healthy individual understands the correspondence between one’s sense of who one is (self) and who one wants to be (ideal self) (Rogers, 1953). His theory has also been described as humanistic, existential, and phenomenological (Dagmar, 1996), which is important to note as you consider outside resources that discuss humanism.

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Focusing on client-centered therapy, Carl Rogers took a humanistic approach to understanding learning. He was a proponent of a therapist providing emotional support and positivity to the client in an effort to foster growth.

Rogers’s concept of humanism emphasized one’s ability to achieve healthy self-development and growth (Rogers, 1953). In the context of therapy, the role of a therapist in fostering healthy growth was also important. Through a process Rogers called person-centered therapy, the therapist should provide empathy, sincerity, and positivity to every client. In addition, Rogers suggested that every person is unique and thus each person’s perceptions are just as unique (Rogers, 1953; Ryckman, 1993). This notion is similar to constructivist ideas because both suggest that perceptions are designed by the individual and learning opportunities should be person centered. But Rogers’s notion also differs from constructivism because Rogers maintained the importance of the role of the facilitator as warm, encouraging, and objective to encourage the positive development of “self.” The facilitator should guide a learner to a higher place, a place of inner contentment and self-actualization. Applying Learning Theory to Life

Today, some academics and scholars suggest that any focus on or renewal of a development of the whole person, emphasizing the importance of the learner, including his or her thoughts, feelings, and emotions, is classified as a humanistic approach (Gage & Berliner, 1991; Lei, 2007; Maples, 1979). Hence, learning, based on the theoretical framework of humanism, is “from the perspective of the human potential for growth” (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 281). These points of view explain the use of the word humanism in more current and modern learning philosophies that will be discussed in this chapter.

In discussions about learning, Rogers’s ideas about the importance of self helped shape ideas about the effectiveness and personal ownership one has in the learning process through the application of methods and motivational strategies that address a learner’s needs and perceived self. Humanists believe that more effective learning occurs when the learner is encouraged to have a positive self-image (also considered by some theorists as positive self-efficacy; see Ryan & Deci, 2000). They also suggest that unconditional feelings of increased value and respect within the learner improve his or her learning potential. For example, if an individual is assigned to a group project and, as a team member, he feels that his input is of value and that the team respects him for his ideas, this framework suggests that he would be more inclined to increase his engagement in the assigned content, thus learning it with increased effectiveness.

However, Rogers noted that most people do not accept learning opportunities as unconditional, believing that to earn value, respect, and even love, one must satisfy the desires of others, rather than themselves (Rogers, 1953). This perception could increase the disassociation a person may have between what he or she does and why he or she chooses to do it (perceived self versus ideal self). Much as with situated cognition (see section 5.3), Rogers suggested that the person then constructs the perceived knowledge to make it fit into his or her reality, even skewing what is truth versus what is the perceived truth. This disassociation also creates an inner struggle that can be seen by persons who may try to acquire what they perceive will be more acceptable to others, though it does not make them truly more knowledgeable, happier, or fulfilled. For example, a student who believes that he or she has value only if he or she gets straight As may perceive a B or C as a complete and utter failure, even if he or she learned a great deal about the content covered in the course and would like to know more. In this example, the student misses out on the self-reward of learning, growth, and personal achievement, and subsequently his or her positive perception of self decreases. Applying Learning Theory to Life

The next section provides an example of a humanistic approach to educating children. Though this example describes a specific setting, as you read, consider how the components could be applied in other settings that would benefit from more effective learning, such as daycares, sales careers, counseling, or career training.

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6.2 Humanism and the Learning Context

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