PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Introduction

 

Learning Objectives

 

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

 

Describe how understanding how we learn can be applied in a real-world setting with self and others.

Explain the basic premises of behaviorism as applied to learning theory.

Explain the basic premises of cognitivism as applied to learning theory.

Explain the basic premises of constructivism as applied to learning theory.

Explain the basic premises of humanism as applied to learning theory.

Identify evolving frameworks of learning theory that expand upon our understanding of how we learn.

 

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i.1 Understanding How We Learn

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i.1 Understanding How We Learn

Have you ever

· tried to help someone with a task, but the more you encouraged him or her, the worse the process became?

· studied all night for an exam but received an F on the test?

· heard a song from 20 years ago on the radio but still knew the lyrics? (Maybe you even wondered how you could possibly still know the old melody but not remember the name of the classmate you met less than 24 hours ago.)

· ignored someone because his or her beliefs differed from your beliefs?

· felt frustrated because your child was struggling in school?

· needed to train a group of employees but had no idea how to begin the process?

· assumed that the people around you should learn something as easily as you do?

· looked back on a decision and recognized that you were not thinking logically when that decision was made?

· had someone dear to you pass away and, afterwards, found it difficult to focus on tasks for any length of time?

If you have ever experienced any of these situations, then the psychology of learning could potentially be one of the most important areas that you will ever study. Understanding how humans learn, based on the psychological principles of learning and educational psychologies, can have profound results on productivity, success, and the search for self-actualization. Such knowledge is applicable in your personal and professional lives. It can empower you to know yourself better. Your knowledge about learning can help you teach and support others better, too. Learning, in essence, is something that you do and that affects you every day (Curran, Harrison, & Mackinnon, 2013). PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

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Understanding how you learn enables you to teach and support others.

Before you can successfully apply such information in your daily life, it’s important to familiarize yourself with the theories, models, and conceptual frameworks associated with learning. A theory is a set of principles used to explain, predict, and understand why a phenomenon occurs. Theories are supported by research but may not be valid in all situations; theories are propositions, not facts. For example, cognitive load theory (CLT), which is discussed further in Chapter 3, proposes that learning is more effective when it is designed to support the brain’s processing structure. A model is much like a theory, but it explains how something may occur. Models often include visual representations of a theory. For example, Baddeley’s model of working memory, which is discussed in Chapter 3, can be explained using an illustration that depicts the core components of working memory and how different elements affect memory development. A conceptual framework (or theoretical framework) is a structure that supports a theory by providing clear connections to all aspects of a research problem. For example, a conceptual framework could be used when studying the association between cognitive load and working memory. Shields and Rangarjan (2013) noted that conceptual frameworks are “the way ideas are organized to achieve a research project’s purpose” (p. 24). (For more information about theories, models, and conceptual frameworks, see Research Skills for Psychology Majors , written by W. K. Gabrenya Jr.)

Psychologists have studied different aspects of learning from different perspectives over time. Their research continues to explore knowledge acquisition, the process of absorbing and storing new information in one’s memory. Researchers seek to explain how and when knowledge acquisition occurs and to identify the properties or characteristics in the environment that can affect it, also known as variables. The age of technology also provides researchers with new ways to better understand the mind and the variables that influence learning and memory (Jonassen, Howland, Marra, & Crismond, 2008; Willis, 2006).

There are numerous theoretical frameworks, and the lines that separate one perspective from another are blurred, although introductory textbooks often present the perspectives as definitively distinct (Abramson, 2013; Watrin & Darwich, 2012). Four foundational theories will be presented in this text: behaviorism (also called behavioral analysis), cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism. These areas will help you develop an understanding of how learning can occur and how to increase the likelihood of successful knowledge acquisition. Although many ideas about these theories have occurred throughout the course of history (see Figure i.1), behaviorism and cognitivism propose specific viewpoints for understanding how learning takes place. These two theories are addressed first in this text. As the understanding of knowledge acquisition broadened, additional attention was placed on discovering practical strategies and variables that affect knowledge acquisition (e.g., past and vicarious experiences, culture, and motivation). Hence, constructivism and humanism, which tend to suggest such strategies, will be addressed after behaviorism and constructivism, with an emphasis on their importance, especially when aligned with the previous theoretical models. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Figure i.1: Timeline of milestones in learning theory

This timeline provides context for the theoretical frameworks surrounding the psychology of learning. Understanding when viewpoints developed and experiments occurred throughout history is crucial in understanding the scope of each theory.

 

 

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

This introductory chapter is designed to help you review the basics of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, humanism, and a selection of evolving frameworks. The other chapters will expand upon the summaries provided in this chapter and feature excerpts from publications written by researchers, psychologists, and academics, each of whom attempts to answer two questions:

· How do we learn?

· How can we learn more effectively?

As you progress through each chapter, be an active participant in the learning process by using skeptical inquiry, by applying critical thinking and reasoning to all you read. Some of the questions you can ask yourself include, but are not limited to, the following:

· Are all theories and methods valid?

· Which theories and methods are most valid?

· How can I apply this information to my own life?

· How can I use this information to help others?

This text aims to support the argument that no approach is “best” or superior to the others. However, you should use the research considered to compare and contrast the approaches and identify your own beliefs about learning goals and how to attain them. This text is intentionally designed to include works from a range of different authors to support the view that not all authors, researchers, and scholars have the same ideas about learning. Authors often have different conceptual frameworks about the area of theory they investigate. Consider this: What if you learned everything from only one person your entire life? Do you think all you learned would be accurate? Often, one author’s texts provide excellent information, yet they are presented from the view of only one scholar. Thus, the inclusions of works developed by a variety of authors should further encourage you to apply skeptical inquiry throughout the learning process. As you discover more about how we learn, keep in mind that one text cannot highlight every view of the vast research available in each area, but the information presented in this text will give you a better understanding of the research available and help guide you as you identify your particular interests in the field. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

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i.2 Behaviorism

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i.2 Behaviorism

The rule, or measuring rod, which the behaviorist puts in front of him always is: Can I describe this bit of behavior I see in terms of “stimulus and response”?

—John B. Watson

All of the foundational theories and models that will be addressed in this text introduce scholars who study behaviors, the ways that humans and other organisms respond to events in their environments, or stimuli. Do not confuse the global idea of studying behaviors with behaviorism or classify someone who studies behaviors as a behaviorist. The basis of behaviorism and human learning is the idea that we each can be trained to learn and that this training is coordinated with physiological needs (Watrin & Darwich, 2012). Foundationally, behaviorism suggests that observable stimuli in our environment (rewards or punishments) are what produce our learning. A behaviorist is someone who holds to this perspective. Even today, we can consider and apply the foundational behaviorist view of learning. For example, children might learn that if they stand in a straight line for the bus, then they will receive a sticker from their teacher at the end of the day (a reward). Or perhaps they learn that if they stand in line, then they will avoid a timeout (a punishment). Either way, the children respond to stimuli (reward or punishment) and learn the teacher’s desired behavior. (See Figure i.2.)

Figure i.2: Example of the stimulus-response connection

A foundation of behaviorism is the theory that learning can be developed through the use of rewards and punishments. In other words, a behaviorist believes that humans can be trained to learn a behavior.

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.; Images from left to right, top to bottom: Purestock/Thinkstock, JaneB/iStock/Thinkstock, bmcent1/iStock/Thinkstock, and Creatas/Thinkstock

Behaviorism as a theory has recognizable foundations, but there are also controversial ideas within its body of research and literature. The theory initially relied on the idea that what we do is simply a reflex, discounting the roles of thoughts and emotions. There are some scholars who argue that behaviorism is no longer an area of study because they believe it was replaced by cognitivism, which is a misleading assumption (Watrin & Darwich, 2012). As you learn about the multifaceted circles that exist within behaviorism, think about whether you agree with the ideas presented.

Branches of Behaviorism

Understanding the theory of behaviorism can be difficult because there are multiple beliefs within this branch of psychology. Zuriff (1985) described behaviorism as potentially unlimited: “a loose family resemblance” (p. 1). This complexity thus supports misperceptions, and sometimes disagreement, about the ideologies aligned with behaviorism. Thus, this overview will introduce four branches of behaviorism as evidence of the complex progression of behaviorism and the scholars who have historically been aligned with its foundations. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Behaviorism’s Many Branches also invites you to discover additional branches of behaviorism.

Psychological Behaviorism

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One of Pavlov’s notable experiments, which included giving a treat to a dog when it responded correctly to a command, is an example of psychological behaviorism.

An early stage of behaviorism, psychological behaviorism contends that behaviors are learned through positive and negative reinforcers, or variables that increase the probability that a behavior or response will occur. For instance, if a child is performing well in the class environment (listening intently and sitting still), then the teacher could potentially reinforce this behavior to encourage its continuance.

Notable researchers include Ivan Pavlov and Edward Lee “Ted” Thorndike. Pavlov’s experiments, in which dogs were the test subjects, helped identify the laws of classical conditioning. Pavlov also developed the stimulus-response (S-R) model, which is based on the assumption that behavior is learned by creating connections between a stimulus, such as a dog treat, and a response, such as the act of sitting on command. Thorndike performed experimental studies of animal intelligence, and he also introduced Thorndike’s law of effect and theory of connectionism. These researchers and their findings will be discussed in Chapter 1.

Radical Behaviorism

Radical behaviorism, also known as molecular, determinist, or Skinnerian behaviorism, argues that behavior, rather than mental states and thoughts, should be the focus of psychology. Radical behaviorists studied behavior and learning without any reflection on the subject’s inner being. Theorists believe that behavior is only the outward manifestations of said actions. For example, researchers in this area would contend that there is no thought to an action such as learning how to drive a car. This process of learning would be based only on the reinforcement of driving (practice) rather than any motivation to be a legal driver.

Notable theorists include B. F. Skinner and J. B. Watson. Skinner studied operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, and principles of reinforcement. Watson is best known for his “Little Albert” experiments, an example of Pavlovian conditioning, and for coining the term behaviorism (Watson, 1913). These researchers and their findings will be discussed in Chapter 1.

Bernstein, Roy, Srull, and Wickens (1988) suggested that Skinner affiliates were “pioneers in the study of conditioning [who] hoped to explain all learning by the principle of reinforcement and the automatic, unthinking formation of simple associations” (p. 271). This group of researchers also suggested that it is the associative strength of a reward or punishment (e.g., how often the stimulus produces the response) that is the ultimate proximal causation for the behavior, unlike molar behaviorists, whom we will consider next.

Molar Behaviorism

In opposition to radical behaviorism is molar behaviorism. Researchers who align with this theoretical foundation, or psychological camp, argue that the rate of reinforcers, not the associative strength, is most important (Baum, 2002). In other words, they believe that the argument that there is only one associated cause for a behavior is imperfect and that the number of events within a specific time period, or rate of reinforcers, would in actuality be the suggested cause for the behavior. But how does molar behaviorism differ from radical behaviorism? We can compare the two perspectives by considering how each might define the concept of loyalty. A radical behaviorist might suggest that one person is loyal to another person because of the number of times this loyalty is reinforced through feedback such as hugs and verbal accolades. A molar behaviorist, on the other hand, might suggest that loyalty is associated with the length of time one person has been loyal to another, noting that singular events such as hugs cannot explain what may be summarized as loyalty.

Molar behaviorism began to take shape in the 1960s, but it became increasingly important in the 1970s (e.g., Baum, 1973; Rachlin, 1976). Prominent researchers include Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum. Rachlin and Baum initially performed analyses of operant behavior in pigeons, and their ideas are based on Richard Herrnstein’s matching law. Rachlin’s current research focuses on behavioral economics, investigating patterns of choice over time and the potential effects on self-control (e.g. Rachlin, 2006; Rachlin, 2010; Rachlin, Arfer, Safin, & Yen, 2015).

Neo-Behaviorism

Another area within the behaviorist body of work is neo-behaviorism, an area that agrees that all learning and behavior can be described in terms of stimulus-response connections (Abramson, 2013). Prominent researchers include Edward C. Tolman and Clark Hull. According to Hauser (2016),

Tolman and Hull were the two most noteworthy figures of the movement’s middle years. Although both accepted the S-R framework as basic, Tolman and Hull were far more willing than Watson to hypothesize internal mechanisms or “intervening variables” mediating the S-R connection. (para. 11)

So Tolman and Hull, unlike some of their counterparts, also evaluated the influence of cognitive processes (e.g., thinking or remembering). Some researchers have suggested it was Tolman who discovered and proposed “the importance of cognitive processes in stimulus-response learning” by placing rats in experimental situations “in which mechanical, one-to-one associations between specific stimuli and responses could not explain the behavior that was observed” (Zimbardo, 1988, p. 295). (See Figure i.3.) Yet Tolman began his search for truth as a behaviorist. Indeed, Kassin (2004) reminds us of Tolman’s position about animals: “[A]nimals in their natural habitat learn more than just a series of stimulus-response connections. They also acquire a ‘cognitive map’ [a visual map within the mind] . . . and they do so regardless of whether their explorations are reinforced” (p. 204). PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

It is this line of thinking that ignited another area of learning psychology, cognitivism, and further substantiates the progressive evolution of ideas from which psychological research originates. (Further discussions about cognitivism are in section i.3, as well as in Chapters 2, 3, and 4.)

Figure i.3: Example of Tolman’s maze

Edward C. Tolman is thought to have discovered the importance of cognitive processes during stimulus-response learning while studying animals. He proposed that animals have the ability to produce a cognitive map regardless of reinforcement.

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Behaviorism’s Many Branches

In addition to the four areas introduced in this section, there are other frameworks that behaviorists can use to guide their research. Explore one or more of the following areas via a quick Internet search and then consider the questions provided:

· eliminative behaviorism

· methodological behaviorism

· logical behaviorism

· epistemological behaviorism

· evidential behaviorism

Questions

1. How do these areas differ from the concepts covered in this text?

2. What similarities do these areas have with the concepts covered in this text?

3. Does your analysis further substantiate Zuriff’s claim that branches of behaviorism have only “a loose family resemblance” (1985, p. 1)?

General and Shared Principles

Learning about the theorists and the similarities and differences between the distinct areas of study within behaviorism can seem overwhelming. However, identifying the overarching themes can make the information more manageable. Behaviorists, loosely and in general, suggest that

· psychology should be considered an observable or natural science (similar to the studies of biology or physics), rather than a science of theoretical or abstract concepts (similar to mathematics or philosophy) (Zuriff, 1985).

· inner physiological or computational processes should not be a dominant explanation for responses between a stimulus and the behavioral response.

· introspection should be dismissed as a means of collecting scientific data.

In today’s learning communities and educational institutions, behaviorism is presented more often as behavior analysis (Watrin & Darwich, 2012). Behavior analysis focuses more on how the learning takes place rather than on how information is learned. One example is the use of positive reinforcement (such as verbal praises) to encourage the repetitiveness of good behavior. Behavior analysis can help identify ways for educators, trainers, parents, therapists, and others to develop techniques to increase supportive behaviors and reduce undesirable behaviors. Chapter 1 will guide you through an exploration of specific topics within the body of research that focuses on behaviorist ideologies in education and learning, including the evolution of behaviorism, the theory of connectionism and the law of effect, principles of conditioning, and applications within society.

The fundamental ideas of behaviorism encouraged a different perspective to step to the forefront: cognitivism, which we will discuss next. Cognitivism is not a substitute for behaviorism, but it is an expansion of behaviorism that eventually was acknowledged as an independent area of study (Abramson, 2013; Lilienfeld, Lynn, Namy, & Woolf, 2009). Applying Skeptical Inquiry: What Is “Truth”? reminds us that knowledge among psychologists expanded over time as researchers discovered new information and sought to understand learning from different perspectives.

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: What Is “Truth”?

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What truths do theoretical models hold about the behavior of learning? Moreover, what is the definition of truth in the context of behaviorism?

Have you ever taught yourself a new skill? Maybe you taught yourself how to sing, build a table, program a computer, or knit a scarf. Did you discover details about the activity that you did not originally believe or know? This process of knowledge acquisition is similar to the shifts that have occurred throughout the history of psychology. Additional knowledge was gained with each experiment, review, and observation, and then the knowledge was presented to others for review. Sometimes the information was accepted widely, but sometimes it was not. The same is still true today. There are several subsets of researchers within each theoretical model, as you’ve already seen. Though researchers in each subset study something through questioning, assessment, and research, they may approach the problem with different methods and lenses. We as human beings continue to explore what we do not understand, and thus a continuum of ideas (hypotheses) are produced, each offering its own definition of truth.

Questions

1. What examples from your own life offer evidence that, based on one’s approach, “truth” could potentially differ from person to person?

2. If behaviorism is fundamentally based on observable behaviors, in opposition to abstract concepts (e.g., thinking, remembering), does it still hold “truths” in regard to the behavior of learning? How?

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i.3 Cognitivism

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i.3 Cognitivism

The brain is wider than the sky.

—Emily Dickinson

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How one thinks, perceives, retains memories, learns, and problem solves is part of cognition.

Cognition, in general, is the mental processes associated with thought. Cognitivism is the psychological study of cognition. The theory focuses on the role of mental processes, including thinking, perceptions, memory, learning, attention, and problem solving. Cognitivism expands upon behaviorism and gained attention during the latter half of the 20th century. During this time, as discussed in prior sections, the practice of minimizing the importance of thoughts and emotions evoked what some in psychology refer to as the cognitive revolution (Lilienfeld et al., 2009; Mandler, 2002). During this time period, researchers also began exploring the fields of computer science and neuroscience.

Some believe that Skinner, a behaviorist, was unwilling to even consider what the mind might add to the exploration of how we learn: “Up to the day he died, Skinner (1990) steadfastly refused to speculate about internal mental processes,” whereas “most psychologists now believe that it is important to understand internal cognitive processes—not only in humans but in animals as well” (Kassin, 2004, p. 204).

Today, it is quite common for researchers to acknowledge both the importance of natural science, such as behaviorism, as well as theoretically based science, such as cognitivism (Coon, 2004). However, behaviorist and cognitivist perspectives differ on two key points. While behaviorists and cognitivists agree that humans think, behaviorists consider thought to be the outward manifestation of the behavior. For example, a person must first think before he or she can walk, but walking is the behavior, not thinking. Cognitivists, conversely, believe that thought affects the behavior or action that occurs. In this case, thinking about walking is part of the behavior and might include the variables where to, how fast, and when. (See Figure i.4.)

Figure i.4: Comparison of behaviorism and cognitivism models

The core difference between behaviorism and cognitivism is the cognitivist belief that thought affects the behavior or action. Conversely, behaviorists believe that thought is the outward manifestation of a behavior.

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

Behaviorists and cognitivists also have different ideas about the role of reinforcements in shaping behaviors. In behaviorism, reinforcements (positive or negative) are applied to strengthen or weaken associations. These methods are also applied by cognitivists. However, in contrast with behaviorism, cognitivists primarily apply reinforcements to change an unwanted behavior to a more desired one, suggesting that reinforcements such as feedback are used to help develop the appropriate association within the mind (Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992). For example, a behaviorist might state that you walked to a chair and sat down because it reinforced your need to rest your legs; you were tired (a physiological state). A cognitivist might ask, “Why that chair? Why did you walk now? Why not later?” In addition, cognitivists might suggest that your past experiences with chairs motivated you to go to this chair to sit and rest, but without thought, you would not have been able to perform the decision to walk to the chair. And what if you had never seen a chair but watched another person sit in one? In this case, you mimicked the behavior, and cognitivists would say it took thought to remember how to walk to the chair and to sit.

After the initial revolution, cognitivists suggested that thinking was crucial to the behaviors displayed and that cognition should become its own field of study (Lilienfeld, Lynn, Namy, & Woolf, 2010). Since then, cognition has been incorporated into many disciplines of psychological study (e.g., educational psychology, psychology of learning, social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, and developmental psychology). Researchers in the learning and educational psychologies focus on multiple aspects of cognition. Areas of study include, but are not limited to, the following:

· cognitive functioning (e.g., thinking, remembering, reasoning, paying attention)

· memory development and retrieval techniques

· language acquisition

· information processing

· problem solving

· attention and perception

This text will guide you through an exploration of some cognitivist ideologies applied in education and learning. Chapters 2, 3, and 4 will include discussions about information processing, problem solving, cognitive mapping, memory, attention and perception, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, schema theory, Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, and attribution theory. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Cognitive Maps invites you to create cognitive maps as you continue to learn about the different theories and update the maps as you acquire new information. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Cognitive Maps

Cognitive maps use a learner’s previous knowledge to help him or her learn additional information by creating connections. For example, you may have learned some of the theories discussed in this text from a different text or in a previous course. But other theories might be new to you. It will be important to connect what you already know with the information you learn in this text to more effectively, and accurately, learn the material.

Review the following links to see other examples of different styles of cognitive maps.

Hand-drawn map #1

Hand-drawn map #2

Examples of several mind maps, including a blank mind map diagram template and maps

· to organize meetings.

· for students.

· to start a business.

· for a Web design project.

· for a promotional campaign.

· for a product launch.

· of a pricing model.

· for a weekly employee meeting.

· of the Harry Potter movie plot.

Questions

1. How could you use mind maps to improve your own knowledge acquisition? How could you use mind maps to help others?

2. Consider designing a mind map for this text. What might you include for each chapter to help you better retain the information?

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i.4 Constructivism

What we see changes what we know. What we know changes what we see.

—Jean Piaget

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Constructivism includes thinking critically and using prior knowledge to process information.

Constructivism is a perspective founded in cognitivism (Braungart & Braungart, 2008). Constructivists are individuals who investigate learning effectiveness based on the theory of constructivism. The constructive approach to learning is represented as a stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model, which focuses on how the organism responds to a stimulus, in contrast to the stimulus-response model, which is used in behaviorism and does not identify the organism as part of the model. (See Figure i.5.) In general, constructivism suggests that people learn by connecting their previous knowledge to new information. These are the connections that create the meaning and acquisition of the new knowledge (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). For example, if you have never put together a puzzle, meaning is created based only on what others tell you about such puzzles. However, if you have previous puzzle-building experiences, then these experiences can affect, both positively and negatively, what you are willing to learn about puzzles. The learner, or organism, is considered to be an active processor of the information. If you are putting together a puzzle, it is also much easier if you have seen the object depicted before putting it together.

Figure i.5: Constructivism’s stimulus-organism-response connection

Differing from the stimulus-response model, the stimulus-organism-response model extends the focus to how the organism responds to a stimulus. This constructivist approach suggests that organisms have the capability to connect old and new information while learning.

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

It is interesting to note that traditional psychology of learning texts rarely address this area of learning psychology. This author attributes this information gap to the vast and differing contexts that explain the constructivism framework. In a nutshell, constructivism is messy. Different names for different notions about constructivism are the norm. However, the tenets of constructivism are still justified models about how we learn and thus are included in this text. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Branches of Constructivism

Constructivism, as do other frameworks, includes several branches of research. Cognitive constructivism, social constructivism, and radical constructivism are introduced in this section. Although these three frameworks are all founded on the assumption that people learn by connecting previous knowledge to new information, each approaches knowledge construction in slightly different ways, yet they are interwoven in such a way that it can sometimes be difficult to discern one framework from one another (Weibell, 2011).

It is also important to note that researchers often use different names for different notions when discussing these branches of constructivism. Thus, each area discussed next may, at times, be reflected differently in other scholarly resources, based on the researcher’s agenda and point of view. Overviews of these three frameworks are provided next, but some will also be explored further in Chapter 5.

Cognitive Constructivism

Cognitive constructivism suggests that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, rather than passively received from the environment. It is also known as Piagetian constructivism, individual constructivism, endogenous constructivism, personal constructivism, and trivial constructivism. A simple form of constructivism (von Glasersfeld, 1990), cognitive constructivism was first suggested by Jean Piaget, who proposed that the key to learning is discovery and, hence, rediscovery (Amineh & Davatgari, 2015). Piaget’s ideas were based on his theory of cognitive development, which will be discussed in Chapter 4. These ideas took hold as educators began to consider the possibility that a learner could be an active participant in the process of knowledge acquisition; the ideas suggested learning strategies beyond the act of lecturing (Amineh & Davatgari, 2015).

Discovery learning, or learning by doing, as suggested by cognitive constructivism, continues to be a supported strategy within a learning context. However, many criticize this particular component of constructivism (Tobias & Duffy, 2009). In essence, the criticism revolves around whether constructivism is a theory or a framework: “It would appear that constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either allows us to precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies” (Tobias & Duffy, 2009, p. 4). That said, this text will treat constructivism as a theoretical foundation, but you are encouraged to use skeptical inquiry to decide what you believe is valid. According to Noddings (1990),

The great strength of constructivism is that it leads us to think critically and imaginatively about the teaching-learning process. Believing the premise of constructivism, we no longer look for simple solutions, and we have a powerful set of criteria by which to judge our possible choices of teaching method. (p. 18)

However, it’s also important to note that although Piaget’s thoughts about constructivism do stress individualistic knowledge construction, he also acknowledged social experiences as an important factor in individual cognitive development (Weibell, 2011).

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism, also known as dialectical constructivism, is a framework that suggests the construction of knowledge is malleable, emphasizing the influence of social experiences, formed throughout the lifespan. These include a wide scope of social influences, such as conversations, relationships, and interactions (Ernest, 1995). Consider how you might have learned to cook or fix a car. These types of learning experiences are often associated with a person or persons whom we watched do the activity. Hence, you might have learned about the cooking or cars during your interactions with someone else while he or she was cooking dinner or repairing a car.

This model, being strongly affected by the social context of the learning experience, also influences the symbolic meanings that the learner creates (Eggen & Kauchak, 2004; McMahon, 1997). When you read the word cup, what visual representation comes to mind? Perhaps a tall, slender vessel, or maybe a short, fat, round vessel. Social constructivism suggests that the visual image you create is based on what you have the most social experience with, which may differ from person to person.

This model also suggests that social experiences influence an individual’s schemata, or patterns of thoughts or behaviors that organize categories of information and the relationships among them in one’s mind. As we learn, we shape our beliefs and value system, our language acquisition, and our ability to process information. Consider your own pattern of thought about how to be successful in a learning environment. What does it involve? Studying daily or perhaps weekly? Taking notes? How might your own interpretation of the process to acquire success differ from that of another person? According to social constructivism, our social experiences affect how we form these personal interpretations.

Social constructivism also suggests that a learner’s confidence in his or her own abilities (efficacy) is a significant variable when an individual is learning something new, and this confidence is strongly associated with the level of motivation that the learner devotes to knowledge acquisition (Wertsch, 1997). This notion is exemplified by Bakhtin (1984), who noted that “truth is not to be found inside the head of an individual person, it is born between people collectively searching for truth, in the process of their dialogic interaction” (p. 110). PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Radical Constructivism

Radical constructivism, also known as exogenous constructivism, argues that learning and behavior are based on the construction of our realities and the outside world and serve to assist us in organizing our external environments. This perspective pushes the basis of constructivism by considering the possibility that when a person constructs knowledge, it may or may not be identical to someone else’s construct. Thus, the idea of a single truth is misleading because knowledge is variable: “What we make of experience constitutes the only world we consciously live in” (von Glasersfeld, 1995, p. 1).

For example, earlier in this chapter you were asked to make your own assessments regarding how the information discussed in this text applies to your independent development. Every individual brings his or her own backgrounds, cultures, ideas, and experiences (both negative and positive) to a learning environment. What individuals read and what they learn may differ for each of them. How applicable the information is will vary, too. Yet radical constructivism argues that if their separate constructs are compatible (able to exist or occur together without conflict), then the learning process was successful (Hardy & Taylor, 1997).

Logical positivism is a related framework to consider when discussing radical constructivism. Logical positivists promote the notion that knowing is cognitively meaningful only if it can be verified. Thus, this viewpoint clashes with many notions of constructivism because knowledge construction is not something that we can see with the naked eye. Logical positivism is somewhat reflected in radical constructivism because this branch of constructivism proposes that knowledge is constructed by our environments, our realities, which can be seen (Harris & Graham, 1994). However, logical positivism lost its robustness as a plausible consideration in the psychology of learning by the late 1960s (Fotion, 1995).

Transformations in the Study of Learning

The mind and the environment both play a role in the process of learning, and the simple act of providing someone with a piece of information does not prove that the information was learned. Researchers in the field of learning are intrigued by constructivism because the framework suggests that humans construct their own learning based on firsthand experiences, vicarious experiences, and current knowledge. In the classroom setting, constructivism has one key component that is both praised and condemned by educators: how information is learned. Asking good questions that prompt learners to understand becomes the most important aspect of this theoretical application to learning. Thus, constructivism changes the teacher’s role from expert to facilitator. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Consider the chart in Figure i.6. This chart highlights some of the fundamental changes to views of learning in the academic community that constructivism has inspired. What once was believed to be only an outward behavior is now thought to be affected by not only thoughts and emotions but also existing knowledge (whether correct or incorrect), life experiences, and the method of information delivery. Constructivists suggest that all of these variables affect how knowledge is constructed and that knowledge formation could differ from person to person.

Figure i.6: Comparison of learning environments

Constructivist learning expands from the traditional individual, static learning to one where the learner discovers, learns with others, and is able to analyze and think critically.

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

Chapter 5 will introduce topics within the bodies of research that are built upon constructivist ideologies of education and learning, including social constructivism, situated cognition, and sociocultural theory. The chapter will also introduce strategies that support this framework, such as problem-based learning. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Belief Construction invites you to apply what you know about constructivism to a scenario focused on a learner’s study habits.

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Belief Construction

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Often, the constructivist point of view can produce negative effects on personal decisions.

Often, our constructed beliefs about a strategy, construct, or behavior can have negative effects on our own decisions. Consider the following example:

Stephanie is attending an online university. She crams for exams for 2–3 hours the night before the test. This is a consistent pattern for her, and the results have been mediocre throughout her academic journey. During lunch one afternoon, Stephanie’s peer suggests alternative formats to studying that could help her attain better results. Stephanie does not believe the strategies will work for her, and thus she does not try the suggestions, continuing her past study behaviors and continuing her belief that this is the best she can do. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Now consider Stephanie’s situation from a constructivist point of view and think about the questions provided.

Questions

1. Based on constructivism, why do you think Stephanie might believe that other strategies will not work for her?

2. Consider your own beliefs about learning. Are there things that you believe that may be holding you back, based on your past or vicarious experiences?

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i.5 Humanism

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i.5 Humanism

Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge? Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?

—T. S. Eliot, Choruses From the Rock

Humanism proposes that people act and learn through intentional behaviors, and that their behaviors are influenced by their values (Huitt, 2001; Kurtz, 2000). Values could include one’s “honesty, integrity, caring, compassion, altruism, empathy, and respect for self” (Cohen & Sherif, 2014, p. 680). Humanism suggests that behaviors are also influenced by one’s social relationships, which could include clients, peers, and colleagues (Cohen & Sherif, 2014). The theory also emphasizes the individual’s role in his or her personal growth and development, that the individual must take ownership of the process. A humanist thus takes the “whole” person into consideration, including the individual’s social, cultural, spiritual, and emotional experiences (Miller & Schmidt, 1999). PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

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Humanism places importance on the role of the teacher as facilitator, providing one-on-one learning experiences.

Humanism places great value on the individual’s motivation, self-development, autonomy, self- and other awareness, and goal setting. According to Elias and Merriam (1980), “Human beings are capable of making significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by heredity, personal history, and environment” (p. 118). Humanism differs from behaviorism in that humanism does not support the notion that behavior and learning are simply responses to stimuli. Compared with cognitivism, humanism does not support the argument that the construction of knowledge and meaning are central to the learning process. Constructivism and humanism differ in their views about the degree of individualized focus in the pursuit of personal growth and self-actualization, but humanism does support person-centered learning and the role of the teacher as facilitator, similar to constructivism. Valett (1977) stated that humanistic education “develop[s] individuals who will be able to live joyous, humane, and meaningful lives . . . [and supports] the development of emotive abilities, the shaping of affective desires, the fullest expression of aesthetic qualities, and the enhancement of powers of self-direction and control” (p. 12). PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Humanism became a predominant topic of conversation in the academic community during the 1960s and gained popularity in education and learning when several critics of American classrooms (e.g., Goodman, 1964; Holt, 1967; Kozol, 1967; Gross & Gross, 1969; and Glasser, 1969) described contemporaneous classroom environments as indecent and damaging to the learner. Humanism in education and learning promotes the importance of developing the learner’s regulatory and affective (emotional) systems, emphasizing the individual’s potential, freedom, and dignity (Huitt, 2001). This perspective suggests that first the regulatory system, which allows one to sense and respond to changes, connects the environment to one’s internal beliefs, thoughts, and emotions. Then the affective system accommodates the information from the environment into the individual’s ability to take action. Thus, humanism suggests that one’s emotional state or predetermined beliefs affect how the information is processed, whether it’s new knowledge, an attitude, or a skill. Abraham Maslow, considered the father of humanism, also suggested that humanism in learning should take into account human potential, personal choice, and ingenuity, in addition to beliefs and values. Maslow noted that the goal of learning should be self-actualization, the realization and fulfillment of one’s potential. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

To further understand humanism, in the context of learning, Gage and Berliner (1991) described five basic objectives of this view:

1. Promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory system)

2. Develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and affective systems)

3. Develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition)

4. Develop curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of the systems)

5. Develop an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective system)

In addition, Gage and Berliner (1991) suggested basic principles of humanism applied to learning:

· Students will learn best what they want and need to know.

· Knowing how to learn is more important than acquiring a lot of knowledge.

· Self-evaluation is the only meaningful evaluation of a student’s work.

· Feelings are as important as facts.

· Students learn best in a nonthreatening environment.

However, humanism also has its share of critics, who note that the means for measuring humanism’s relevance to learning is primarily established through philosophical and qualitative methodology, which could involve variable approaches and yield subjective results (Seligman, 2002). Additionally, C. H. Patterson suggested in 1987 that there are significant issues with creating a humanistic approach to learning in a classroom:

1. Teachers are not prepared to meet the classroom management skills needed to manage environments that promote increased spontaneity and creative discovery. Even when teachers are trained to manage discovery learning practices, they might revert back to methods that mimic the teacher-directed learning experiences of their pasts (Bagher, 2013; Tabachnick & Zeichner, 1984; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1981). (This is an argument that, in essence, supports the constructivist view that past experiences can affect the application of knowledge, even if this knowledge is successfully learned.)

2. Affective and relational development conflicts with the cognitive development goals of education.

3. Humanistic education is, at times, associated with secular humanism.

Chapter 6 will discuss several theories that support humanism, including the Steiner pedagogy and Waldorf education, motivation, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, experiential learning, and transformative learning. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Applying Humanism to Learning invites you to apply what you know about humanism to a scenario focused on a learner’s academic goals. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Applying Humanism to Learning

Humanism in learning supports areas such as self-directed learning and self-evaluation. Consider the following scenario:

Jeff is just starting high school but already knows that he is interested in becoming a nurse. He is very successful in his science courses, but he struggles in English and literature courses.

A humanist might reason that Jeff believes English and literature do not support his interest in nursing. What do you think?

Questions

1. Based on humanistic learning principles, how could Jeff’s parents or instructors help Jeff achieve greater success in these more personally challenging courses?

2. How could Jeff, personally, make these courses more applicable to his own goals?

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i.6 Evolving Frameworks

The world we have created is a product of our thinking. It cannot be changed without changing our thinking.

—Albert Einstein

With the substantial amount of research that took shape in the late 20th century, as well as the need to stay competitive in a global environment, additional learning frameworks and variables continue to be introduced, tested, questioned, expanded, and critiqued. Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Intelligence and a New Age of Learning offers one perspective on how our understanding of knowledge acquisition continues to change. The last two chapters of this text will introduce areas suggested to affect learning that some researchers might consider less rigorous but still show promising results for strategies to increase learning success, including an awareness of one’s own mental abilities, learning preferences, strategies, and emotional development. As stated previously, you should evaluate the content with skeptical inquiry and a willingness to expand upon what you already know about learning. The following areas will be introduced in Chapters 7 and 8: PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

· Mental ability awareness

· Intelligence quotient (IQ): What is intelligence, and how does it affect learning?

· Learning capacities and strategies

· Multiple intelligences: How do one’s learning preferences affect how one learns? How can an awareness of one’s learning capacities help one learn more effectively?

· Learning and technology: How can (or does) technology support learning?

· Self-regulated learning: How does understanding the importance of taking ownership for one’s learning increase success?

· Metacognition: How can understanding the learning process, applying it, and adjusting for development increase learning effectiveness?

· Emotional development

· Emotional intelligence: How does one’s emotional development potentially affect how one learns?

Each one of these evolving frameworks has the potential to be its own text, even its own course, so it seems pertinent to clarify that not every element, idea, or suggestion under these paradigms, which are distinct sets of concepts or thought patterns, can be included in this text. Instead, your introduction to these ideas should motivate you to seek out more knowledge, to better understand your own abilities, and to strive beyond the status quo. Psychology is complex. Psychology is multifaceted. Psychology can help you strengthen your understanding of yourself and those around you. It is up to you to decide what concepts you can or cannot apply to your learning. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Applying Skeptical Inquiry: Intelligence and a New Age of Learning

Human beings have developed at a substantial rate, and our understanding of how we learn matures more each day. Watch Alex Wissner-Gross’s TEDx Talk, “A New Equation for Intelligence.” In this video, he explores the idea of intelligence and its meaning in today’s world.

https://youtu.be/ue2ZEmTJ_Xo

Questions

1. Based on this video, how do you think learning will change over the next century?

2. How will humans need to change to have continued success when acquiring new knowledge?

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Summary & Resources

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Summary & Resources

Chapter Summary

This chapter introduced foundational theories and learning models in the psychology of learning. Researchers use these theories and models to identify affective variables by asking questions about how humans learn, designing studies that seek to answer such questions, and assessing the findings that support or dispute their predictions. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

You can begin to understand why learning is such a fascinating and complex area of psychology by looking at learning through the frameworks of behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, and humanism. Each of these frameworks has supporters and critics who suggest plausible rationalizations for why the framework should not be applied exclusively to questions about learning. Such variation in the study of learning demands that academics and knowledge seekers constantly and consistently question methods and frameworks. If those who study learning psychology continue to have a questioning mindset, then they will help ensure that this area of research continues to rigorously evaluate and disseminate new information. A thorough understanding of both the supportive and the critical arguments of theories and models is vital to your understanding of learning and gives you valuable insights on the variables that could affect the learning process. See Table i.1 for an overview of the areas discussed. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Table i.1: Overview of frameworks introduced

Area to be addressed	Chapter(s) addressing	Description	Topic areas
behaviorism	Ch. 1	A theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning by way of interactions with the environment; it argues that one can be trained to learn.	· psychological behaviorism · radical behaviorism · molar behaviorism · classical and operant conditioning · reinforcement and punishment
cognitivism	Ch. 2–4	A theory that focuses on mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than another.	· the cognitivist movement · information processing · schema development · cognitive/concept mapping · Bloom’s taxonomy · memory development · false memories · autobiographical memories · attention and perception · cognitive load theory · theory of cognitive development · schemata development’s role in comprehension · social learning theory · social cognitive theory · attribution theory
constructivism	Ch. 5	A theory of learning based on the idea that people learn by connecting their previous knowledge to new information; some argue it is a framework rather than a theory.	· types of constructivism · social constructivism · situated cognition · sociocultural theory · problem-based learning
humanism	Ch. 6	A theory of learning that proposes that people act and learn through intentional behaviors, placing great value on the individual’s motivation, self-development, autonomy, self- and other awareness, and goal setting.	· Steiner pedagogy · Waldorf education · motivation · Maslow’s hierarchy of needs · experiential learning · transformative learning
evolving frameworks	Ch. 7–8	Modern theories and models that are currently addressed.	· intelligence · intelligence quotient · multiple intelligences · emotional intelligence · learning and technology · metacognition

© Bridgepoint Education, Inc.

The options that learning theories and models offer can bring vitality and energy to the scholarship process and create more successful learning, whether you are developing yourself or educating, training, advising, or counseling others. In today’s education and learning psychologies, researchers and academics might align with more than one foundation. As you learned in this chapter, ideas can be intertwined with questions that do not fit entirely within one theoretical model. In today’s academic circles, researchers pose questions and then identify the framework or lens that their questions will be founded upon. In some cases, the researcher’s topic of interest resides in one psychological camp, but overall, most academics are in search of answers to help learners succeed and are prepared to look through a variety of lenses during their quest for answers. Biologists Bernd and Margaret Heinrich (1984) stated, “Even carefully collected results can be misleading if the underlying context of assumptions is wrong” (p. 151). Looking at a question from all angles is beneficial, but this approach is also a requirement for discovering, or uncovering, answers.

Remember that this text will present information about learning in a way that allows you to make your own assessments about the questions that should be asked and what foundations could help identify the solutions. The hope is that you will be able to apply the theories considered in this text to your own journey in learning and go on to weave the concepts into other areas of your professional and personal lives. Et iter adducet illustration: May your journey bring enlightenment! PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Key Ideas

· Learning psychology is applicable to every area of life, including personal and professional goals.

· There is no “best” theory, framework, or model. Each is applicable to successful knowledge acquisition.

· You should compare, contrast, and identify your own beliefs about your personal learning goals and how to attain them using the techniques and guidelines suggested by research.

· All of the foundational theories and models that will be addressed in this text feature scholars who study behaviors.

· The basis of behaviorism and human learning is the idea that every individual can be trained to learn something (Watrin & Darwich, 2012).

· The theory of behaviorism, also known as behavior analysis, is a multifaceted progression of ideas and research.

· Cognitivism is the psychological study of cognition, the study of the mind, an area of study that gained momentum during the latter half of the 20th century.

· Cognitivism expands upon behaviorism but focuses on mental processes, including thinking, perceptions, memory, learning, attention, and problem solving.

· Constructivism is a perspective founded upon cognitivism that supports the idea that people learn by connecting their previous knowledge to new information.

· Some researchers classify constructivism as a framework, rather than a theory.

· Humanism suggests that people act and learn through premeditated behaviors that are influenced by their values.

· Humanism focuses on the individual’s motivation, self-development, autonomy, self- and other awareness, and goal setting.

· Evolving frameworks that focus on learning continue to expand psychologists’ understandings of how people learn and how they can learn more effectively.

· Effective learning is a complex process, and an awareness of how people learn can increase the likelihood of successful knowledge acquisition. PSY 331 Psychology of Learning Wk1-D1

Additional Resources

An essential part of your quest to better understand learning is becoming more familiar with academic resources that will create a more valuable and holistic learning experience. The following journals can provide you with a place to start. Be sure to first check your local (or online) university and public libraries for access to these resources. You might be able to access these and other academic resources without paying any additional fees.

Peer-Reviewed Behaviorism-/Behavior Analytic–Focused Journals

· Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis

· Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior

· Journal of Organizational Behavior

· Behavior and Social Issues

· The Psychological Record

Peer-Reviewed Cognition-Focused Journals

· International Journal of School and Cognitive Psychology

· Advances in Cognitive Psychology

· Applied Cognitive Psychology

· Journal of Cognitive Psychology

· The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning

· Journal of Adolescence

· Journal of Learning Disabilities

Peer-Reviewed Constructivist-Supportive Journals (Predominantly Education Focused)

· Learning and Teaching: The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences

· Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages (also a humanistic-supportive journal)

· Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences (also a humanistic-supportive journal)

· Teaching and Learning in Medicine

· Studies in Philosophy and Education

· Teaching Philosophy

· Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, and Culture

· Academic Exchange Quarterly

· College Teaching

· International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

· The Journal of Faculty Development

· Journal of Hispanic Higher Education

· Journal of Online Learning and Teaching

· Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning

· Journal on Excellence in College Teaching

· The Review of Higher Education

Peer-Reviewed Humanistic-Supportive Journals

· The Journal of Humanistic Counseling

· Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences (also a constructivist-supportive journal)

· Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages (also a constructivist-supportive journal)

· New Directions for Higher Education

· The Elementary School Journal

· Adult Education Quarterly

· New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education

· Journal of Individual Psychology

Key Terms

behavior

behaviorism

behaviorist

cognition

cognitive constructivism

cognitive revolution

cognitivism

cognitivist

conceptual framework

constructivism

constructivist

discovery learning

humanism

humanist

knowledge acquisition

model

molar behaviorism

neo-behaviorism

paradigms

psychological behaviorism

psychological camp

radical behaviorism

radical constructivism

rate of reinforcers

reinforcer

skeptical inquiry

social constructivism

stimuli

stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model

stimulus-response (S-R) model

theory

variable

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