Research Methods Paper Assignment

PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING & ATHLETE TRANSITION

Effects of Psychological Skills Training on Athlete Transition

SES537: Sport Psychology – Dr. Kimberly Cologgi

Matthew R. Cologgi

Introduction

The following will serve as a literature review on the use of; psychological skills training (PST) decreasing stress in athletes’ retirement from competitive sport. This review of literature will be categorized into four subsections; (a) defining athletic identity, (b) research on the topic of athlete transition, (c) research on the topic of stressors involved with transition, and (d) supporting research on the benefits of PST reducing stress.

Review of Literature

Athlete Identity

Athletic identity is an essential element of the social character formation for adolescences. Throughout life, adolescents attempt to determine who they are as a person, leading to identity confusion (Robbins & Madrigal, 2017). These individuals will focus on creating such identity through the role of family, friends, education, or wherever they can see themselves fit. Similarly, athletes process through an identity formation phase between the ages of 12 and 18 years old. Robbins and Madrigal’s theory of social identity inputs the idea of people identifying themselves with a certain group of individuals; in this case as athletes, or specific to the sport in which they play (e.g., hockey player). A study by Webb, Nasco, Riley, and Headrick (1998) argues that an athlete’s identity is stronger than those not affiliated with sports. Research Methods Paper Assignment

Webb and colleagues have explored the area of interest regarding athletic identity and the psychological state of athletes transitioning out and already retired collegiate athletes. This research study gathered information from current students and alumni from the University of Notre Dame in the likes of better understanding a relationship between athletic identity and psychological states of retirement. Specifically categorized by different variables; retirement from injury, retirement by force, and volunteered retirement. Open ended questionnaires were sent to 136 current student-athletes, and 95 alumni on the topics of; sports they have played and for how long, highest level of competition achieved, and why they retired if it applies.

22% of the participants said they sustained career ending injuries, 44% stated that they were unable to keep up with the next level, and 34% said that it was a choice, and wanted to direct their focus elsewhere. In terms of identity, more than half of the participants labeled themselves with an athlete-specific identity. The major significant findings of this study revealed a correlation of difficult transfer between life satisfaction, uncertainty of the future, and retired athletes that were unable to compete at the next level.

Further research by Douglas and Carless (2009) found similar statements of difficulties with the transition process. They found that athletes who have been closer related to identifying themselves as an athlete will be higher at risk for a more challenging process. Douglas and colleagues explored how female golfers transitioned from professional to life after. By doing so, the researchers interviewed two professional female golfers over a six-year interval to examine their experiences and retirement from a competitive profession. Results of this study showed being introduced into elite sports can shape and dominate one’s identity. Both subjects in this study referenced having a lost sense of purpose and confusion after retirement, leading them to “reconstruct” or re-identify themselves.

Athlete Transition

As stated in the previous section, transition, or retirement, can lead to a lost sense of identity. However, further research states that athletes should learn how to find the balance and use available resources. Bjornsen and Dinkle (2017) specifically viewed the time and commitment needed for NCAA, Division-I student-athletes, to complete a successful transition. Interestingly, the study was not explored through student-athletes, but a coach’s perspective in two different contexts; (a) what a coach believes it will take to generate a successful transition, and (b) a coach’s perspective on the current and needed academic support within their institution.

The researchers contacted 14 coaches from Division-I, NCAA schools in various sports and level (head or assistant). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with each coach to explore the purpose of this topic, as explained above. By pulling quotes from the interview process, the researchers we able to identify four separate themes; satisfaction with current practices, preparedness for transition, transferrable skills, and resources needed for a successful transfer. All four themes related back to the coaches’ perspectives on the academic support, and resources that the institution had to offer. Most coaches referred all their athletes to reach out on their own time, and balance academics with sport. Research Methods Paper Assignment

Finding the balance can also be associated with finding the right motivation to stay engaged. Green (2005) suggests that sport psychologists have labeled certain motives for athletes to inquire so they can stay involved. Green suggests that programs need to focus on social interaction and inclusion for positive transitions to occur. To avoid a culture shock for transitioning athletes, programs that are taking in new athletes should look to nurture potential players. For example, training camps and practices should be focused more on skill execution, instead of instruction. Providing positive feedback on how to prepare for the next level while staying engaged and ready for new challenges. A similar study, by Jones, Mahoney, and Gucciardi (2014), examines the transition in, instead of transition out, with elite rugby players. Jones et al. studied 17 male rugby players who were in the process of transition into the National Rugby League (NRL). Examined with multiple variables of transition (e.g. players within their first year, more experienced players, players who have not made a full-time role, etc.), semi-structured interviews were developed specific to each participant. Significant findings comparing Jones et al. (2014) to Green (2005) include themes such as readiness to compete, personal development, and social inclusion among teammates. Internally, and externally motivating the athletes to remain interested throughout their state of transition into new programs.

While most studies on the topic of transfer examine the effects of internal factors, not too many studies have valued the non-athletic factors on the subject matter. Leading into a topic for Erpic, Wylleman, and Zupancic (2004) to explore. The non-athletic factors in which these experts examined were age, education status, and positive and negative transitions outside of athletics. This study aimed to pull attention to these factors and how they relate to the difficulties at the psychological, psychosocial, and occupational levels. It also examined the participants post-sports career life objectives.

The study involved 85 former elite athletes who had been retired for no more than 4 years. They were given two questionnaires; the Sports Career Termination Questionnaire (SCTQ), and the Non-Athletic Transitions Questionnaire (NATQ). The SCTQ consists of asking about specific characteristics involving the termination process, sport career, transition to post-sport life, and adaptation. The NATQ presents numerous life events such as education, family life, interpersonal relationships, etc. This questionnaire was measured on whether the participant had experienced, and the intensity at which they did. Results from Erpic and colleagues show that almost 40% reported preparing for life before retirements, and over 25% had never thought about it.

Stress due to Transition

Reporting back to that 25% who never gave a thought on life after sport, which Erpic and colleagues (2004) discovered, further research found the use of life or career development interventions for athletes in the transition phase (Stambulova, Alfermann, & Stalter 2009; Lavallee, 2005). Stambulova et al. (2009) correlates career transitions as being stressful and experienced feelings of uncertainty about the future change for better or for worse. The researchers categorized transitions into normative and non-normative phases. Normative more related to transferring into a program (e.g. higher level, different training, different lifestyle, etc.). Non-normative phase of transition is less predictable, like retirement due to injury, leads to higher stress and the need for more proper coping strategies. To enhance strategies, such as coping, Lavallee (2005) looked to administer interventions in hopes to ease stress. Research Methods Paper Assignment

Lavallee expected to find a correlation between life development interventions and positively coping with the challenges of transitioning. He took 32 former professional soccer players from the English Premier League to use for his interventions. This intervention package was emphasized on change, growth, and the enhancement of strategies (supportive and counseling strategies) leading into a new event (retirement). Results from this study proved the hypothesis that life interventions can release stressful situations for athletes in the transitioning phase. As mentioned earlier, Webb et al. (1998) suggested that athletes tend to have a stronger identity than those who are not affiliated with sport.

Grove, Lavallee, and Gordon (1997) hypothesis that those with a stronger identity to athletics, may be prone to experience more difficult emotional and social adjustments. Also, Grove and colleagues believe that planning for the future might cause anxiety with those of an exclusive athletic identity. To explore their hypotheses, questionnaires were sent to 51 retired Australian athletes. The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) looks to measure the strength of athletic identity in which the athlete associates. The second instrument used was the COPE questionnaire, which was administered to examine how the participants coped with their retirement phase. Findings from this study showed significant positive correlations between multiple variables. The most interesting was the relationship between anxiety and career exploration/decision making after retirement. Also, career planning that was pre-retirement did not report to be high with those of a stronger athletic identity.

Supporting research done by Sunghee, Lavallee, and Tod (2013) found that athletes have the most trouble with planning a post-sport career when faced with retirement. This finding drove the question of exploring career transition experiences on a psychological, and socio-cultural level. Psychological factors like identity, and socio-culture factors like pre- and post-retirement life. To gain the most in-depth collection of data, interviews were conducted with Korean tennis players on topics such as; careers, identity, reasons for retirement, emotional experiences, and the coping strategies used to help alleviate stress. Interviews were done 2-3 months prior to retirement, 1 month prior, 5-6 months post, and finally 11-12 months post-retirement.

Three major themes were found involving identity shift, available resources during the shift, and decision-making and consequences to those decisions in the process of retirement. In the light of identity shift, athletes described a moment of stress and confusion in identity post-retirement. It was also found, much like other studies already discussed, that those without a post-retirement plan experienced higher anxiety, and lack of self-confidence in their ability to “make it on their own.” Leading to the idea, that planning beyond retirement, will help reduce stress and anxiety in this phase of an athlete’s life. Research Methods Paper Assignment

Effects of PST

Social identity was defined earlier as identifying oneself with a group; for example, athlete, soccer player, etc. (Robbins & Madrigal, 2017). Later, it was discussed that athletes who transition from sport, tend to have a hard time handling the process, varied throughout different findings. For example, results from Sunghee et al. (2013), Lavallee (2005), and Grove et al. (1997) all support the idea of planning for the future, and discuss different ways on how to reduce stress and anxiety.

Psychological Skills Training (PST) is the practice of training psychological skills to improve competences like attitude, approach, personal satisfaction, etc. (Robbins & Madrigal, 2017). PST is an interesting method, as it should be designed specifically to the participant. Foster (2017), believes that possessing stronger psychological skills will correspond with greater sport well-being. Sport well-being can be broken down further into subjective, social, and psychological. Subjective sport well-being has an emphasis on emotions and feelings in relation to sport satisfaction. Psychological can be related to personal growth within sport. Lastly, social is explained by one’s functioning within sport.

To test Foster’s hypothesis, he invited 222, NCAA Division-I student-athletes to answer a series of questionnaires. These instruments were to test current mental state, overall sport well-being, psychological skills, and mindfulness. Mindfulness is another practice of sport psychology, emphasized to make athletes aware of their thoughts and surroundings, and regaining their attention to the task at hand. Both psychological skills and mindfulness had a significant, positive relationships with sport well-being. Also, PST was proven to enhance certain skills relating to sport well-being like attitude and overall satisfaction.

Another study conducted by Parker (1996) tested the use of PST in collegiate swimmers, in hopes to find a positive correlation between the practice of applied sport psychology and performance. Because applied sport psychology has been growing in recent years, the necessity of Parker’s study was to prove the demand. A coach approached the researcher in the request of running PST programs to enhance the performance of a collegiate swim team. To examine the effect and quality of the program, the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport-R5 was administered before, during, and after the season. The aims of the inventory were to test the knowledge and application of the athletes’ psychological skills. After the study was complete, the team and coaches were satisfied with program and requested it to become a regular practice for their program. Like Parker, a study was done in 2014 by Osborne, Greene, and Immel to test the quality of psychological skills in how it can enhance factors like performance and reduction of anxiety. Research Methods Paper Assignment

Anxiety is a normal reaction to perceived threats or situations in the realm of sport. For example, the feelings a basketball player gets when the game winning free throw is on the line, or the feeling an ice hockey goalie gets when the other team is given a penalty shot. In these scenarios, a typical “fight or flight” response occurs; however, it is how the athlete perceives and handles the situation. For example, motivated and confident individuals experience the “fight” response that typically leads to performance accomplishments. Osborne and colleagues look to test how short mental training programs can regulate music performance anxiety (MPA) and increase competences like self-efficacy. Researchers gathered information from 31, classical music students within their first two years of undergrad. Similar to Parker (1996), Osborne et al. (2014) used the Psychological Skills Inventory (PSI) to assess psychological performance skills. Later, each participant was then invited to join the peak performance training program, and instructed to bring their results from the PSI.

The program was broken down into three different sections, the first being an informational introduction on subjects such as; performance anxiety and the effect it has on health and motor functions, the effect of “fight or flight,” and choking under pressure. The second part asks the participants to set up goals and objectives for their musical careers. The third part focused on enhancing techniques, such as breathing, to reduce anxiety. For example, the first breath is to focus attention on breathing and easing tension. The second breath aims to generate the performer to their center, and so on. Significant findings, involving MPA and performance energy significantly reduced after the program. This shows that students felt more relaxed and calm after the psychological training practice program. There were also significant findings in increased confidence, and improvements in preparation skills and learning ability.

The use of PST is not just geared toward athletes, as shown by Osborne and colleagues in the previous study. Musicians, doctors, athletic trainers (to list a few) can benefit from the use of psychological skills enhancement. Mentioned earlier, from Lavallee (2005), athletes who become injured have a higher chance of becoming stressed. These athletes fear things like uncertainty and the unknown of their injury; when they will return to play, at what skill level, and the fear of reinjuring themselves. Psychological skills have been proven to increase sport injury rehabilitation (Hamson-Utley, Martin, & Walters, 2008). Being able to coincide athletic trainers, physical therapists, and sport psychologists is believed to reduce the risk of stress on an injured athlete.

Hamson-Utley et al. (2008) explored the attitudes and beliefs of athletic trainers and physical therapists on the effectiveness of psychological skills to improve injury rehabilitation and recovery speed. The researchers collected data from certified athletic trainers with high school programs, collegiate, and professional. Also from certified physical therapists who were employed in orthopedic outpatient rehabilitation settings. Total of 1000 athletic trainers, and 1000 physical therapists were selected to participate in this study. Research Methods Paper Assignment

The researchers were concerned with specific psychological skills such as imagery, goal setting, and positive self-talk to promote more efficient recoveries. The survey given to the population was the Attitudes About Imagery (AAI), which measures all three psychological skills listed above, and pain tolerance to improve adherence and recovery speed. Only a third of the population responded, however that is still a significantly high number out of 2000. Initially, Hamson-Utley and colleagues found no effect of education within accredited athletic training programs on the effectiveness of psychological skills. However, physical therapists and athletic trainers who did have a formal education on mental imagery, did find it to be a positive correlation on the effects of rehabilitation.

Due to the goal of this research, exploring the beliefs of the injury rehabilitation practitioners, athletic trainers found more of an interest in the use of psychological skills. Participants had said that setting proper goals can promote a more efficient recovery. This proves that psychological skills training can indeed be used to reduce stress in athlete performance, injury rehabilitation, and even outside of sport performance (musical, surgical, etc.).

Conclusion

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of psychological skills training on athletes who are experiencing a transition phase within their career. Significant evidence has been found supporting athletic identity, transition, and a correlation to stress and anxiety. Mentioned before, athletes with a stronger identity tend to have a more difficult time planning for life after retirement (Grove, 1997). There is also supporting evidence involving the use of PST and reducing performance anxiety (Osborne et al., 2014). It is to be expected, that PST can positively affect the regulation of emotions that athletes may experience during a period of transition.

Factors that may lead to an insignificant correlation between PST and emotion regulations include, but are not limited to; personality type, or preparedness. Lavallee (2005) found that athletes benefited from a life development intervention prior to retirement. Meaning that if an athlete already has a job lined up, or simply has a plan, transitioning will be a more positive experience than those who do not have a plan. Also, personality type could affect the way one perceives the given situation. If an athlete is more Type-B and relaxed, research wouldn’t expect to find the benefit of PST. Also, it can be deemed that those who are able to utilize their resources efficiently (e.g. support systems) to transition better on their own, rather than someone who does not have strong support from family or friends. Research Methods Paper Assignment

References

Bjornsen, Abby L. & Dinkle, Danae M., (2017). Transition Experiences of Division I College Student-Athletes: Coach Perspectives. Journal of Sport Behavior. 40(3), 251-253.

Douglas, K. & Carless, D. (2009). Abandoning the performance narrative: Two women’s stories of transition from professional golf. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21(2), 213-230.

Erpic, S.C., Wylleman, P., & Zupancic, M. (2004). The Effect of Athletic and Non-Athletic Factors on the Sports Career Termination Process. Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 5(2). 45-59. DOI: 10.1016/S1469-0292

Foster, Brian. (2017). The Contributions of Psychological Skills and Mindfulness to NCAA Student-Athlete Well-Being. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing – Florida State University. DOI: 10260384

Green, Christine. (2005). Building Sport Programs to Optimize Athlete Recruitment, Retention, and Transition: Toward a Normative Theory of Sport Development. Journal of Sport Management. 19(3). 233-253. DOI: 10.1123

Grove, R. J., Lavallee, D., & Gordon, S. (1997). Coping with retirement from sport: The influence of athletic identity. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 9(2), 191-203. DOI: 10.1080/10413209708406481

Hamson-Utley, J. J., Martin, S., & Walters, J. (2008). Athletic Trainers’ and Physical Therapists’ Perceptions of Effectiveness of Psychological Skills Within Sport Injury Rehabilitation Programs. Journal of Athletic Training. 43(3). 258-64

Jones, R. A., Mahoney, J. W., & Gucciardi, D. F. (2014). On the Transition into Elite Rugby League: Perceptions of Players and Coaching Staff. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology. 3(1). 28-45.

Lavallee, David. (2005). The Effect of a Life Development Intervention on Sports Career Transition Adjustment. The Sport Psychologist. 19(2). 193-202. DOI: 10.1123

Robbins, J. E., & Madrigal, L. (2017). Sport, exercise, and performance psychology: bridging theory and application. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Osborne, M. S., Greene, D. J., & Immel, D. T. (2014). Managing Performance Anxiety and Improving Mental Skills in Conservatoire Students Through Performance Psychology Training: A Pilot Study. Psychology of Well-Being. 4(1). 1-17

Parker, Celeste A. (1996). Applied Sport Psychology Consultation and Research: Psychological Skills Training with Collegiate Swimmers. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing: State University of New York at Buffalo. DOI: 9704922

Stambulova, N., Alfermann, D., Stalter, T., & Cote, J. (2009). ISSP Positions Stand: Career Development and Transitions of Athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 7(4). 395-412.

Sunghee, P., Lavallee, D., & Tod, D. (2013). A Longitudinal Qualitative Exploration of Elite Korean Tennis Players’ Career Transition Experiences. Athletic Insight. 5(1). 65-92.

Webb, M. W., Nasco, A.S., Riley, A., & Headrick, B. (1998). Athlete Identity and Reactions to Retirement from Sports. Journal of Sport Behavior. 21(3). 338.

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