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11/4/2020 The dolls in Brown vs. Board of Education

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From “Novel Expert Evidence In Federal Civil Rights Litigation” by Gordon Beggs (The American University Law Review, 45, 1995)

In the consolidated cases known as Brown v. Board of Education, federal civil rights litigation came of age. The case, which heralded great change in constitutional law, public schools, and the fabric of society, also introduced the civil rights field to the debate regarding the use of novel forms of scientific proof as evidence.

At trial in Brown’s consolidated case Briggs v. Elliott, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) presented dramatic testimony by Professor Kenneth Clark of the City College of New York.Professor Clark performed innovative psychological tests utilizing dolls to identify harms inflicted on the plaintiff children due to segregation. Professor Clark described the tests and his conclusion in response to questioning by Robert Carter of the NAACP:

A. I made these tests on Thursday and Friday of this past week at your request, and I presented it to children in the Scott’s Branch Elementary school, concentrating particularly on the elementary group. I used these methods which I told you about–the Negro and White dolls–which were identical in every respect save skin color. And, I presented them with a sheet of paper on which there were these drawings of dolls, and I asked them to show me the doll–May I read from these notes? JUDGE WARING: You may refresh your recollection. THE WITNESS: Thank you. I presented these dolls to them and I asked them the following questions in the following order: “Show me the doll that you like best or that you’d like to play with,” “Show me the doll that is the ‘nice’ doll,” “Show me the doll that looks ‘bad’,” and then the following questions also: “Give me the doll that looks like a white child,” “Give me the doll that looks like a colored child,” “Give me the doll that looks like a Negro child,” and “Give me the doll that looks like you.” By Mr. Carter: Q. “Like you?” A. “Like you.” That was the final question, and you can see why. I wanted to get the child’s free expression of his opinions and feelings before I had him identified with one of these two dolls. I found that of the children between the ages of six and nine whom I tested, which were a total of sixteen in number, that ten of those children chose the white doll as their preference; the doll which they liked best. Ten of them also considered the white doll a “Nice” doll. And, I think you have to keep in mind that these two dolls are absolutely identical in every respect except skin color. Eleven of these sixteen children chose the brown doll as the doll which looked “bad.” This is consistent with previous results which we have obtained testing over three hundred children, and we interpret it to mean that the Negro child accepts as early as six, seven or eight the negative stereotypes about his own group. . . . Q. Well, as a result of your tests, what conclusions have you reached, Mr. Clark, with respect to the infant plaintiffs involved in this case? A. The conclusion which I was forced to reach was that these children in Clarendon County, like other human beings who are subjected to an obviously inferior status in the society in which they live, have been definitely harmed in the development of their personalities; that the signs of instability in their personalities are clear, and I think that every psychologist would accept and interpret these signs as such. Q. Is that the type of injury which in your opinion would be enduring or lasting? A. I think it is the kind of injury which would be as enduring or lasting as the situation endured, changing only in its form and in the way it manifests itself. MR. CARTER: Thank you. Your witness.

Professor Clark’s testimony, while founded on scientific principle, carried great emotional power, and therefore caused vigorous debate among the litigants and scholars as to its import. NAACP counsel Thurgood Marshall, arguing on behalf of plaintiff schoolchildren, asserted the broadest inference that could be drawn from results of these tests: they proved actual harm done by segregated schools. Thus, minority schools violated the Fourteenth Amendment because they could not satisfy the separate but equal standard announced by the Court in Plessy v. Ferguson. Other NAACP lawyers, like many civil rights practitioners who would follow in their footsteps, struggled with the meaning of the novel scientific evidence that they were attempting to develop. One historian subsequently reported that Professor Clark’s tests using the dolls were “the source of considerable derision” among plaintiffs’ attorneys. William Coleman, a former clerk for Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, acknowledged, “Of all the debunkers, I was the most debunking. . . . I thought it was a joke.” Professor Clark,

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who also served as principal advisor on the expert testimony for the school desegregation cases, was well aware of the controversy. He recalled:

Thurgood [Marshall] kept his options open. He played the role of conductor beautifully. It was clear that Bob Carter was the most persistent, consistent advocate of the involvement of the social scientists at the trial level. Bob was way out on the limb, pretty much by himself. Most of the other lawyers felt this approach was, at best, a luxury and irrelevant. Thurgood Marshall didn’t tip his hand, except that he did let Bob and me go ahead with the dolls.

John W. Davis argued on behalf of the defendant school officials.60 Davis chose to attempt to undermine the doll tests’ stature as scientific evidence by invoking a sarcastic style of argument. He pointed out that Professor Clark purported “to speak as an expert and informed investigator.”61 From an “intensive investigation” and “thoroughly scientific test,” Professor Clark reached the “sound conclusion” that the plaintiffs suffered harm in their development.62 Calling the result “sad,” Davis declaimed that the court was “invited to accept it as a scientific conclusion.”63 In concluding, however, Davis attempted to turn Professor Clark’s published research64 in the defendant’s favor by pointing out that a greater percentage of black children in northern schools preferred the white doll, thought the white doll was nice, and thought the black doll was bad.65 He declared, “Now these latter scientific tests were conducted in nonsegregating states, and with those results compared, what becomes of the blasting influence of segregation to which Dr. Clark so eloquently testifies.”

The Court ordered reargument of the cases67 and did not issue its opinion until May 17, 1954.68 Holding that racial segregation of children in public schools was a per se violation of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Court found that segregation “generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect the childrens’ hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.”69 Noting the consistent findings in the Kansas70 and Delaware71 decisions that segregated schools injured the plaintiffs and denied them equal educational opportunities,72 the Court concluded that “[w]hatever may have been the extent of psychological knowledge atthe time of Plessy v. Ferguson, this finding is amply supported by modern authority.”

June 2, 2004 [2000]

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11/4/2020 Classics in the History of Psychology — Clark(1940)

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Classics in the History of Psychology An internet resource developed by

Christopher D. Green York University, Toronto, Ontario

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SKIN COLOR AS A FACTOR IN RACIAL IDENTIFICATION OF NEGRO PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie K. Clark (1940)

First Published in Journal of Social Psychology, S.P.S.S.I. Bulletin, 11, 159-169.

Racial identification has been assumed to be indicative of a phase of the development of consciousness of self. Horowitz (2) conceives of the beginnings of race consciousness as a function of ego development. The authors (1) also assumed racial identification to be indicative of particularized self-consciousness. An investigation of the factors inherent in the genesis of racial identification would obviously lead to an understanding of the dynamics of self consciousness and its social determinants. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

In a preceding paper the authors (1) presented results of an investigation of age and sex factors in racial identification. The present paper is an attempt to determine the influence of skin color as another factor in racial identification of Negro preschool children. Methodology, experimental procedure and subjects are identical with those used in the preceding investigation. However, the subjects are here divided, on the basis of skin color, into three groups; light, medium, dark. Moreover, only choices of white and colored boy are included in the analysis of results, excluding irrelevant choices (lion, dog, clown, hen) of some of the three-year olds. It seems necessary to state that the experimenter who actually worked with the children was medium brown in skin color. This was fortunate in that it tended to neutralize the probable influence of as extremely light or dark investigator on the responses of the children.

When the data presented in Table 1 are analyzed for choices of the colored boy, it is found that the light children chose the colored boy 36.5 per cent, the medium children 52.6 per cent and the dark children 56.4 per cent. This shows a consistent increase (approaching statistical significance) in choices of the colored boy from the light to the medium group (CR 2.69) . From the medium to the dark group the increase is negligible (CR 0.76). But from the light to the dark group there is a statistically significant increase as choices of the colored boy (CR 3.15). [p. 160]

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Analyzing the data for choices of the white boy, there is a decrease in these choices from the light to the medium group (CR 2.38). The decrease is not statistically significant from the medium to the dark group (CR 0.16). However, from the light to the dark group the decrease in choices of the white boy is striking (CR 4.57).

An analysis of the data from the point of view of differences a between the percentage of choices of white and colored boy by each skin color group shows an increase in choice of colored boy over white boy, proceeding from the light through the medium to the dark group. The light group made 20.0 per cent more choices of the white boy than of the colored boy (a – 20.0 per cent choice of the colored boy; CR 2.77). The medium group chose the colored boy 10.9 per cent more than the white boy (CR 1.25) and the dark group made 15.9 per cent more choices in favor of the colored boy (CR 2.52). It is interesting that the highest difference in percentage of choices is found in the light group in favor of the white boy. The significance of this analysis remains, however, in the increase in percentage differences in favor of the colored boy proceeding from the light through the medium to the dark group. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

The data from Table 1 show an almost reciprocal picture for choices of the extreme skin color groups of light and dark, identification of light children more with pictures of the white boy, and identification of dark children more with pictures of the colored boy. This would seem to establish the factor of skin color as an important one in the genesis of consciousness of self and racial identification.

The fact that light children chose the white boy many more times than the colored boy suggests an identification of self, not on the basis of socially defined racial group differences, but on the basis of physical characteristics within the specific racial group. That the [p. 161] same thing holds true in the other extreme group of dark children can be safely assumed. It may be stated that consciousness of self as different from others on the basis of observed skin color precedes any consciousness of self in terms of socially defined group differences in these Negro children.

The fact that the medium group closely resembles the dark group in making more choices of the colored boy than of the white boy seems to indicate that the same dynamics involved in the identifications of the dark children are operative in the identifications of the medium children. A fact which should be noted is that the classification of the medium group was more difficult and resulted in greater heterogeneity of subjects in respect to skin color. This would not, however, explain why the medium group aligned itself, with respect to choices, with the dark group rather than with the light group.

It is quite possible that this difference could be explained through an analysis of the light group. The factors resulting in a cleavage of this group from the other two groups might be inherent in the characteristics of the light group itself. This point of view finds some justification if the results are viewed as indicative of the light group’s deviation from the norm of choices of the other two groups. If so, then the extreme lightness of skin color must be conceived as marking off a distinctive group rather than as a mere difference in degree from the medium and the dark skin colors, and this fact responsible for the observed cleavage.

The results show clearly that an analysis of subjects upon the basis of skin color may not assume that the difference between the medium skin color group and the light group is equal to that between the medium and the dark group in reference to the inherent dynamics involved, in spite of the seemingly observed objective differences. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

In the light of this rather definite result further analysis of these three groups is necessary before any real explanation or conclusion may be drawn. It is possible that other factors (age and sex) might have influenced the above mentioned results.

An analysis of the data for sex differentials disclosed one deviation from the results already presented; namely, the light males made more choices of the colored boy (58.6%) than of the white boy (41.3%). This result appears to be contrary to the general trend of the influence of the skin color factor on identifications. The small number of cases, 11, however, in this group of light boys as compared with the medium, 39, and dark, 25, groups of boys [p. 162] probably explains the existence of this deviation. Because of the small number of cases in each category of a male-female breakdown according to both skin color and age levels, it seemed advisable to mass all of the

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cases without regard to sex differences. This was done in spite of the fact that it was previously suggested (1) that the dynamics of the identification of brothers and cousins by the girls was somewhat different from those operative in the boys’ identification of themselves. This possibility, however, does not appear to affect seriously the basis of the present analysis especially when it is seen that the medium and dark groups of males (with larger numbers of subjects) do not deviate from the general trend of the results from all subjects. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

The male medium group chose in favor of the colored boy (56.1%) rather than the white boy (43.8%). The male dark group chose the colored boy 64.3 per cent and the white boy 35.6 per cent.

In spite of the small number of cases in the light group at each age, some trends for the three groups may be seen from Table 2.

At the three-year level, both the light and medium groups made more choices of the white boy than of the colored boy. The percentage differences in favor of the white boy are 7.7 per cent for the light group (CR insignificant) and 16.9 per cent for the medium group (CR 2.64). On the other hand the dark three-year-olds [p. 163] made more choices of the colored boy than of the white boy (CR 1.47). It would appear that the extreme groups of light and dark children are beginning to identify themselves on the basis of their own skin color, whereas the medium group seems influenced by other factors in making identifications of self. It may be that these medium three-year-olds, not being on the extremes of skin color, have not yet reached the developmental level of self consciousness where identification of self is in terms of skin color. The apparent non-identification of the medium three-year-olds on the basis of their skin color as the determining cue is probably primarily due to the lack of definiteness of their own skin color when compared with the presented line drawings. On the other hand, the apparent trend of the medium three-year-old children may be due to the greater heterogeneity of skin colors in this classification — an overweighting of this group with children “lighter than” others in the same skin color classification.

At the four-year level the light group again makes more choices of the white boy than of the colored boy (CR 2.37) . However, the picture is changed for the medium and dark groups at this age. The medium group makes significantly more choices of the colored boy than of the white boy (CR 4.79). The dark group makes more choices of the white boy than of the colored boy (CR 1.10). PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

The persistence of the light group in identifying with the white boy and the increase in statistical significance of this difference at the four-year level further emphasizes identification of these children on the basis of their own skin color. The reversed trend of the medium group at this age level as compared with the three-year medium group and the statistical significance of their identifications in favor of the colored boy (CR 4.79) indicates the

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attainment of a developmental stage where identifications are now made in terms of awareness of skin color differences, particularly differentiating themselves from the light group.

A possible explanation of the tendency of dark four-year-old children to make identifications in favor of the white boy (CR 1.10) is that these children are conscious of being dark or of being different from the light children, but make identifications of themselves in a direction indicating “wishful thinking” by pointing to the white boy. The fact that the difference in choice in favor of the white boy is not more impressive statistically than it is would seem to call for more evidence. [p. 164] The five-year-old light children are still consistent in identifying themselves more with the white boy than with the colored boy (CR 2.16). The three-, four- and five- year-old light children have consistently made a greater percentage of identifications of themselves with the white boy. The percentage of choices of the white boy increases from the three-year (42.3%) to the four-year level (65.1 %) but decreases slightly at the five-year level (61.1 %) . This slight decrease in choice of the white boy by the light five-year-olds is, of course, concomitant with a slight increase in choice of colored boy. This slight trend may point in the direction of identifications on the basis of socially defined race; a developmental stage subsequent to identification on the basis of their own physical characteristics.

Although the five-year-old medium children make more choices of the colored boy than of the white boy the difference is entirely insignificant statistically as compared with the difference in favor of the colored boy at the four-year level (CR 4.79). In order to understand the decreased difference in choice of colored boy over white boy of the five year medium group as compared with the four-year medium group, it is necessary to keep in mind two facts; (a) the general instability of choices of the medium group as compared with the light and the dark group, and (b) the indicated lesser sensitiveness of the technique for the five-year-olds as contrasted with its sensitiveness for the three- and four-year-olds (1). PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

For the dark five-year-olds the choice of colored boy over white boy is striking (CR 21.21). In choices of the colored boy the data show an insignificant drop from the three-year (52.3%) to the four-year level (44.1%) (CR .08) and a sharp rise from the four-year to the five-year level (70.1%) (CR 3.42) . Indications of the operation of the mechanism of “wishful thinking” were found to some extent only in the four-year-old dark children (choices were in favor of the white boy). This mechanism was not indicated to any appreciable extent in the three-year- olds, suggesting the possibility that the operation of the mechanisms of “wishful thinking” and phantasies in reference to self identification is too sophisticated an operation for the three-year-old developmental level. The five-year-old dark children seem to have abandoned almost entirely “wishful thinking” in favor of identifications based on the concrete fact of their own skin color.

When cases of children making consistent choices of either the [p. 165] a white boy or the colored .boy (that is, choosing either boy consistently throughout the series of three pairs of line drawings of colored and white boys) are taken from the total group for analysis, the same trends for the skin color groups already discussed are even more evident.

Of the total group of 150 Negro children, 58 or 38.66 per cent were consistent in their choice of either the colored or the white boy. [1] Age was found not to be a factor in consistency of response since 40.0 per cent of the three-year-olds, 36.0 per cent of the four year-olds and 40.0 per cent of the five-year-olds were consistent.

Of the 30 light children in the total group of 150 children 47.0 per cent were consistent; 26.0 per cent of the medium children were consistent; and 50.0 per cent of the dark children were consistent. This lower percentage of consistent medium children again indicates the general instability and vacillation of choices of the medium colored children. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

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These data show that the consistent light children were choosing the white boy more than the colored boy by an appreciable percentage. The consistent medium children and the consistent dark children chose the colored boy over the white boy to the same degree as the light children did the reverse. This clearly substantiates the foregoing results from percentage of total choices.

The analysis of the data in terms of age levels for each consistent skin color group shows insufficient cases for presentation of the results in percentages. However, the general trend can be seen when the results are shown by the number of consistent children, as in Table 4.

Data in this table further substantiate the fact that skin color [p. 166] is a determinant in self identification of these children, with the same exception of the three-year-old medium children already noted above.

DISCUSSION

Horowitz (2) states that Negro children’s identifications of themselves with the line drawings and pictures of white children could possibly be interpreted as “wishful activity,” or as identifying one’s self “not so much in terms of what one is as . . . in terms of what one is not.” It is clear that the consistent identifications of the light children with the white boy strongly point in the direction of an awareness of self in terms of a concrete physical characteristic such as skin color. While it is still possible that the factor of “wishful activity” may be of some influence here in a few instances, it seems, however, too great an abstraction, in the face of the predominant concrete clue of the actual skin color of the light subjects to be seriously considered as a determining factor in this instance. It is only when the more concrete factors, e.g., dark skin color, would tend to militate against a given choice that one would be justified in utilizing intangible concepts for an interpretation of the results. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

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Although twice as many dark children were consistently choosing the colored boy, eight of them were consistently choosing the white boy. “Wishful activity” as an explanatory concept seems to be more plausible here-but at best not a very strong point in the face [p. 167] of lack of information concerning the effects of other factors on consciousness of self and racial identification; namely, intelligence and an understanding by the subjects of the concept of difference.

In a preliminary supplementary study an attempt was made by the authors to determine the number of children who were able to verbalize the actual skin color difference in the drawings of the white and colored boy. The awareness of this difference was expressed by the subjects’ pointing to the drawings and saying something as follows: “He’s white-and he’s colored” or “A black boy — a white boy.” Among the four children positively indicating a skin color difference in this supplementary study and at the same time consistently choosing the white boy in the picture series three were light and one was medium. This result, if substantiated by a more extensive investigation, would definitely rule out “wishful activity” as an explanation of the choices of the white boy by these Negro children in the one instance in which it at present seems most applicable. Then too, the operation of “wishful activity” involves the following two factors: (a) The negation of concrete determinants of the self, and (b) an evaluation of alternatives and a definite decision as to the better of the two. This, in the light of the observed behavior of the children, seems wholly outside of their present scope. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

In general, these results give little evidence of the operation of “wishful activity” in the identifications of the subjects and show clearly that identification of oneself is in terms of what one is rather than “what one is not.”

Horowitz (2) states: “Judging from the choices of the children and their verbal comments, one may conclude that identification with the correct picture indicates an awareness of one’s own skin color as a factor of differentiation and similarity.” If this awareness of one’s own skin color is actually a level of self consciousness preceding consciousness of socially defined racial differences, one would expect these light children to identify themselves with pictures of white children. Any interpretation of data in terms of correct identifications, i.e., identifications of Negro children with pictures of colored children, disguises significant findings. The fact that identification of the light children with pictures of the white boy is an indication of awareness of self in terms of one’s own skin color is supported in this study by: (a) The fact that at all ages the light children made more choices of the white boy than of the colored boy; (b) the fact that [p. 168] light children showed a sharp increase in identification with the white boy from the three- to the four-year level and maintained this increase at the five-year level; (c) the fact that 10 out of 14 light children making consistent choices in the picture series chose the white boy rather than the colored boy; (d) the fact that of children verbally indicating a skin color or racial difference between the colored and white boys (supplementary study) and at the same time consistently choosing the white boy in the picture series, three out of the four were light in skin color.

The general tendency of the dark children to identify themselves with the drawings of the colored boy is not incompatible with the objective fact of their own skin color. This same thing holds true of the medium children with certain already stated modifications. There would be, however, a definite incompatibility if the majority of light children identified themselves with the drawings of the colored boy, hence the persistence of their identifications with the white boy. It is obvious that these children are not identifying on the basis of “race” because “race” is a social concept which they learn at a higher stage in their development. They are, however, definitely .identifying on the basis of their own skin color which is to them a concrete reality.

The results indicate a slight trend for the light children to make identifications contrary to the objective clue of their own skin color. This paradox increases with age and can best be interpreted as the approach to another developmental stage in the consciousness of self. At this stage it appears that concepts of self gleaned from the concrete physical characteristics of perceived self become modified by social factors, taking on a new definition in the light of these social factors.

The implications of these results seem pertinent to an understanding of the genesis of the personality in general and “personality of minority peoples” in particular. Whatever the concepts of self in relation to society as found in Negro adolescents and adults, whether they result in adjustments or conflicts, they are certainly to be conceived as part of a total pattern of development in which these findings are primordial. PSY4500/Wk5 – Assignment: Evaluate Diversity Research

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REFERENCES

1. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. K. The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in Negro preschool children. J. Soc. Psychol., 1939, 10, 591-599.

2. Horowitz, R. E. Racial aspects of self-identification in nursery school children. J. of Psychol., 1939, 7, 91-99.

Footnotes

[1] That is, choosing the same boy (white or colored) three out of three times.